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16 — 47372-3 GPO 



UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

CiJAl'TEKSFRUM THE KEl'OKT UF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 

FoK 181I4-9J. 



EDUCxVTlON 



nf 



THE NETHERLAl^DS 



AISD 



IN ITALY. 



(••-^-^^'k^" 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OjPKrCK, 

1896. 






I 



ol 



L 



CHAPTER XL 
EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



Sources of iNFORMAXiOisr; — Official reports: Jaarboek A-au het OnderTvijs in 
Nederland. — Yerslag van den Staat tier Hooge, Middclbaro en Lagero Scholeu en 
het Kouiukrijk der Nederlauden. — Wet van het Lagere Onderwljs. — "Wet van het 
Middelbaar Onderwijs. — Eeport of consul, United States, May, 1889. — Vor Ungdom, 
1891.— Schmidt's Encyclopedia. — Buisson, Dictionnaire de Pedagogic et d'lustruc- 
tion Piiinaire. — Statesman's Yearbook, 1893. — Revue Pcdagogique Beige. — Eevue 
Internationale do I'Enseignemeut. 

Minister of the interior, 1893-94: Tak van Poortvliet. 

Inspectors of primary instruction: First circuit, Mr. J. B. A. J. M. Yerheijen, te 's 
Hertogeubosh (Xovember, 1880) (North Brabant, Gelderland, and Limburg) ; second 
circuit, Mr. J. C. Fabius, te Delft (April, 1890) (South Holland, North Holland, 
Zealand, and Utrecht) ; third circuit, Mr. A. G. A. Baron Sloet tot Oldhnis (April, 
1890) (Friesland, Overijssel, Groniugen, and Drenthe). 

District school superintendents, 25. 

Arroudissement school superintendents, ~94. 

CLASSIFICATION OP SCHOOLS IN CONFORMITY WITH LAWS GOVERNING PRIMARY, 
SECONDARY, AND SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. 

rrimary instruction. 

(1) Public primai'y schools supported by the State (Government) or connnuncs. 

(2) Private jirimary schools (subsidized and nousubsidized). 

(3) Home instruction. 

(4) Infant scliools and asylums. 

(5) Primary instruction in jirison schools. 
(I) Normal schools maintained by the State. 

(II) Normal courses maintained by the State. 

(III) Normal schools maintained by the communes. 

(IV) Normal schools and courses maintained by private corporations and persons. 

Secondary instruction. 

(1) Burgher schools supported by communes. 

(2) Higher burgher schools supported by communes. 

(3) Higher burgher schools su^iported by the State. 

(4) Higher burgher schools supported by private citizens. 

(5) Industrial, drq,wing, and trade schools. 

(6) State Academy of Liberal Arts. 

(7) State normal school for the training of drawing masters. 

(8) Schools for the training of Government officials for the Netherland-Indies. 

(9) Agricultural schools. 

(10) Polytechnic school. 

(11) Military and naval schools. 

(12) Veterinary schools. 

(13) Training schools for midwives. 

(14) Schools for deaf-mutes, blind, idiots, etc. 

' By Miss Soj)hia Nussbaum. 

475 



476 EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. 

Superior instruction . 

(A) PUBLIC. 

(1) State universities (a) of Leyden, (b) Utrecht, (c) Groningen. 

(2) University of Amsterdam supported by the commune. 

(3) Gymnasia and progyranasia. 

(B) PRIVATE. 

(1) Free University of Amsterdam. 

(2) Denominational theological schools, preparatory schools, Latin schools, colleges, 

etc. 

The Netherlands. 
i. central government. 

TLe first constitutiou of the Netherlands after its reconstruction as 
a kingdom was adopted in 1815 and revised in 1848 and 1887. By- 
virtue of this charter the Netherlands is a constitutional hereditary 
monarchy. 

The executive power of the State belongs exclusively to the Sovereign, 
while the whole legislative authority rests conjointly in the Sovereign 
and Parliament, the latter consisting of two chambers, called the 
States-General. The Upper or First Chamber is composed of 50 mem- 
bers, elected by the 11 States from the highest assessed inhabitants 
and from certain high and important officials specified by law. The 
Second Chamber of the States-General numbers 100 deputies and is 
elected directly from among all the male citizens who are 30 years of 
age and are not deprived by judicial sentence of their eligibilitj^ or the 
administration and the dis^josal of their property. 

The Government and the Second Chamber only have the right of in- 
troducing new bills, the functions of the Upper Chamber being restricted 
to approving or rejecting them, without the right of amendment. 

II. LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 

The territory of the Netherlands is divided into 11 provinces and 
1,123 communes. 

Each province has its own representative body, ''The provincial 
states." The members are elected for six years directly from among 
the male. Dutch inhabitants of the province who are 25 years of age, 
one-half of the members retiring every three years. The form of elec- 
tion and the mode of procedure in this body are the same as that for the 
Second Chamber of the States-General. Voters must be inhabitants of 
the province. Eepresentation is based on the population of the prov- 
ince, and numbers from 80 for South Holland to 35 for Drenthe The 
provincial states are entitled to make ordinances concerning the welfare 
of the province, and to raise taxes in accordance with the law. All 
provincial ordinances must be approved by the King. The provincial 
states exercise the right of control over the municipalities and elect 
membe.i's of the Upper Chamber of the States-General, and see that 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 477 

the common law is executed in their provinces. They meet twice a 
year, as a rule, in public. A permanent commission, composed of 6 of 
their members, called the states deputies, is charged with the executive 
power in the province and the administration of its affairs. Both the 
deputies and the i^rovincial states are presided over by a commissioner 
appointed by the Sovereign, who in the former assembly has a deciding 
vote, but in the latter only a deliberative voice. He is the chief magis- 
trate of the province. Only the members of the states deputies receive 
an allowance. 

Each of the communes forms a corporation, with its own interests 
and rights, subject to the general law. Every commune has a council 
elected for six years by the same voters as for the provincial states, 
provided they are inhabitants of the commune; one-third of the coun- 
cil retires every two years. All the Dutch male inhabitants of 23 
years of age are eligible for the council, the membership of which 
varies from 7 to 39, according to population. These councils have the 
right of making and enforcing by-laws concerning the communal wel- 
fare; they may raise taxes according to rules prescribed by common 
law, and each commune receives a tixed annual allowance out of the 
State treasury. All by-laws may be vetoed by the Sovereign. The 
municipal budget and the resolutions to alienate municipal property 
require the approbation of the states deputies of the province. The 
council meets in public as often as may be necessary, and is i^resided 
over by a mayor, appointed by the Sovereign for six years. The execu- 
tive power is vested in a college formed by the mayor and two, three, 
or four aldermen elected by the council. This college is also charged 
with the execution of the common law. The municipal police is under 
the authority of the mayor, and as a State functionary the mayor super- 
vises the actions of the council, and may suspend their resolutions for 
thirty days, but is bound when so doing to inform the states deputies 
of the province. 

The area of the Netherlands is 12,648 English square miles. 

Population, 4,732,911, according to census of December 31, 1893, or 
372.20 inhabitants per square mile. Of the total population in 1893, 
there were 2,341,484 males and 2,391,427 females. 

Religion. — According to the terms of the constitution, entire liberty 
of conscience and complete social equality are granted to the members 
of all religious denominations. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION. 

Holland has always been among the leading countries of Europe in 
the educational line; in fact, the Dutch Government was the first one 
in this century to promulgate official school laws, viz, in 1801, 1803, 
and 1800. 

The first school known in Holland was founded in Utrecht by Wille- 
brod, the first bishop of the Frisians, who in 690 landed on the shores 



478 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

of the Netlieiiands. This school attained great fame, and it is said that 
Pepin, the son of Charles Martel, was educated there. The educational 
influence of the apostle of the Germans, St. Boniface, was very notice- 
able. Under Gregory, one of liis scholars, this town assembled within 
its walls the studious youths from all the neighboring countries (quidam 
autem et de Baguarus et Suevis). During the invasion of the Kor- 
mans this school was suspended, but in the year 917 it was reestab- 
lished, and soon attained its former splendor. The three sons of Emperor 
Heinrich der Yogler (Henry the Fowler), Otto, Heinrich, and Bruno, 
were educated there. The latter, who was Duke of Lorraine, while 
archbishop of Cologne, was known for his great learning. In the begin- 
ning of the twelfth century Utrecht had no less than 5 flourishing 
schools, some of which had, besides the clergymen, who were superin- 
tendents, a rector scholarum. 

At the same period several monasteries achieved distinction as schools 
of learning, among them those of Egmond, Nijmegen, Middelburg in 
Zealand, and Adouwert near Groningen. During the twelfth century 
the influential communes of Holland and Belgium established, in addi- 
tion to the cathedral, cloister, and ecclesiastical institutions, communal 
schools for the burghers and the common people. The privilege to 
open such schools was always obtained from a count, who conferred 
it either upon cities or private individuals as a special favor. The 
instruction in the communal schools in Holland, unlike those in Bel- 
gium, was withdrawn entirely from the supervision of the clergy and 
became essentially secular. Grants were made to the following cities: 
To Dortrecht in 1290, by Count Floris V; 'sGravenhage 1322, Leyden 
1324, Rotterdam 1328, etc., by William III ; Delft and Amsterdam 
1334, by William IV; Leyden again in 1357, Haarlem 1389, Alkmar 
1398, Hoorn 1358 and 1390, The Hague 1393, Schiedam and Oudewater 
1394, Rotterdam 1402, by Albert of Bavaria. The Dutch communal 
schools were divided into x)rincipal and branch schools, and in the 
former Latin was taught. John Cele's school, which was of this class, 
enjoyed an excellent reputation in the fourteenth century, and is said 
to have numbered as high as 1,000 puj)ils of all nationalities. The 
Hieronymians, who founded the Society of the Brethren of Life, estab- 
lished numerous schools during the fifteenth century, in which the poor 
were taught gratuitously. 

The first university of Holland, in Leyden, was founded by William 
the Silent in 1575; a second was established at Fraueker in 1585; and 
in the eighteenth century three universities were opened, respectively, 
at Utrecht, 1638, Groningen, 1G44, and at Herderwijk in 1G48. Many 
celebrated men of science and i^hilosophy occuj)ied chairs at these insti- 
tutions, including Grotius, Spinoza, Dousa, Huyghens, Gronovius, Hein- 
sius, Perizonius, Raphelengius, Schultens, Meursius, and Boerhave. 
The learned Pope Hadrian lY was born in Utrecht. The universities 
and Latin schools maintained their rej)utation during the eighteenth 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 479 

century, but popular iustruciiou was not developed in the same degree, 
for the methods used were i)urely mechanical and tended to extinguish 
the intelligence of the pupils rather than stimulate it. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century (1811) Cuvier made rather 
an unfavorable report on the condition of the universities and Latin 
schools of Holland. The government established by ISTapoleon I intro- 
duced certain reforms which were subsequently ratified and developed 
by King William I. Dutch legislation regarding primary instruction 
has attracted the attention not only of writers, but of the Governments 
of various countries, on account of its hostility to the principle of denom- 
inational schools. The first impulse to an improved system of i^rimary 
instruction in Holland was given by John Nieuvenhuysen, a Mennonite 
clergyman in Groniugen, who founded in that city in 1784 the Society 
of Public Good (Maatschappij tot Xut van't Algemeen), whose objects 
were to promote elementary instruction — moral, social, and religious. 
This society was very successful and the Government supported it in its 
efforts. The basis of the Dutch system was laid in the celebrated law 
of 180G, x)repared by M. van den Ende. This school law remained 
unchanged until 1857, when amendments were made. The j)rimary 
instruction act of 1857 was supplemented by another act of August 
18, 1879, making important alterations which tended to extend public 
education. It was again considerably altered by the act of December, 
1889. This last act gave unrestricted liberty to the establishing of 
private schools whereby i)ublic instruction is diminished. The Govern- 
ment, however, retained absolute supervision of all i)rivate schools. 
The constitution of 1848 jjlaced all religious denominations on an equal 
footing. The principle of secular and coeducational schools had at first 
the assent and support of ministers of every creed, including the lloman 
Catholics; but after 1848 a general opposition developed against this 
XDlan. A new party of orthodox Protestants started, named after Groen 
van Prinsterer, a prominent professor and writer, and these claimed that 
the Roman Catholics were strictly carrying into execution the law of 
180G, as they excluded in their teaching everything of a doctrinal char- 
acter, even the Bible itself. In the endeavor to check the anticipated 
advances of the church the Groenists, who were in a small minority in 
the chambers of 1857, when the new educational law was framed, 
attacked the i^rinciple of the schools, denouncing them as breeding 
places of atheism and immorality and demanding in their place denom- 
inational schools which should provide religious instruction. The 
majority was composed of Koman Catholics who preferred to exclude 
religious instruction entir-ely from the schools rather than it should 
inculcate Protestant ideas, liberals who were in favor of a total separa- 
tion of church and state, and dissenters of every denomination. The 
important question of denominational and nondenominational schools 
was fully discussed in the legislature. The result was that the nonde- 
nominational character of the school system was maintained, but with 



480 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

modifications of its general details. The retention of the word "Chris- 
tian" education in the lavr gave great offense to manj^ members of the 
Liberal party favoring nondenominational schools, but the Eoman. 
Catholics especially insisted upon expunging the word " Christian," as 
they declared that practically it meant Protestant, and most of them 
voted against the law because the word "Christian" was retained. 
The law, however, was passed by a large majority and public instruction i 
in Holland remained nominally Christian, but in a sense so broad that'f 
it would have been expressed better by the term " moral." The law of » 
1857 provided that while public instruction should impart all necessary 
secular knowledge and develop the understanding of the pupils, it , 
should at the same time train them to the practice of every Christian 1 
and social virtue, and also provided that primary schools should be 
conducted at the exjieuse of the communes. Two modifications had 
taken place in the Dutch school system from 1806 to 1848, to wit, the 
establishment of normal schools in 181G as an integral part of the sys- 
tem, and a change in the administration of the private schools for the 
middle classes, for these were found upon inspection to be inferior to 
the public schools, which were originally intended for the poor. 

To enter the public schools a certificate of poverty was demanded, 
which virtually excluded children of the middle class, and it was 
claimed that the State should provide for the proper education of 
middle-class children as well as the poor, since the middle classes were 
the largest taxpayers in support of primary schools. To meet this 
reasonable demand two grades of iDublic schools were added to the 
school system — French intermediate and the classical schools. Inter- 
mediate schools were therefore established in towns where, by paying a 
fee of from 6 to 10 cents per week, all classes of children could obtain 
an education at public expense. French schools of a superior grade 
were also founded, their course including English and French, other 
modern languages being taught for a higher tuition. Above the French, 
schools were placed Latin and classical institutions. The system of 
primary instruction in Holland became, therefore, gradually enlarged, 
so as to include the higher, common, and classical institutions. 

Tlie educational system of Holland is very complicated, inasmuch as 
the various grades of educational establishments are provided for 
separately, each being partly supported by the General Government or 
provinces, communes, or individual citizens, as the case may be. Pri- 
mary instruction includes home and school education. The tuition 
given to children, members of not more than three families, is called 
"home instruction." All other tuition, including schools for the poor, 
orphan asylums, reformatory schools, charitable institutions, and others 
for the public benefit, is by law designated as " school instruction." 

Primary schools, which are maintained entirely or conjointly by the 
communes or the State (Government), are considered public schools, and 
all others are i)rivate. The law of August 17, 1878, .provides that every 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 481 

subsidy from a public fuud, be it never so small, sliall transfer a school 
to the domain of public schools. Consequently the private schools 
mentioned in article 3 of the law of 1857, which, on account of their 
nondenoniinational character, have obtained a subsidy from public 
funds, are no longer classed as private schools. They are grouped with 
the public schools and must submit to the rules governing them. In 
the oflficial reports published in Holland these schools are called "sub- 
sidized private schools,'' in which charges for tuition may be imposed 
upon all children. 

The question of State subsidies to sectarian private schools pro- 
foundly agitated the people of Holland for almost a whole generation; 
it was finally settled by the law of December 8, 1889, which provided 
that instead of paying each community 30 j)er cent of- all expenses, 
each one should receive from the State a certain amount, determined 
by the number of pui)ils, and this rule is extended to private and paro- 
chial schools. The State is responsible for 25 i)er cent of the cost of 
founding or purchasing school buildings. But while State schools are 
under State supervision, parochial schools are not, for there the clergy 
is the ruling power. While formerly the tuition fees of the State 
schools were small, they are now graded in proportion to the State sub- 
sidy. The act of 1889 of course reduced the attendance at the public 
schools and increased the number of pupils at the private seminaries. 
A sufficient number of schools for all children without distinction of 
den(,iminations are maintained in each commune. ^Neighboring parishes 
may conjointly support schools, and children from different communes 
may be admitted thereto. Opportunities are also given to children to 
continue their education in the so-called "repetition schools." It is also 
provided that children attending schools shall receive religious instruc- 
tion from special teachers at hours appointed for that purpose. 

The object of primary instruction in the schools is to impart useful 
knowledge and to develop the intellectual powers of the child, as well 
as to train him in all Christian and social virtues. School attendance 
is not compulsory, though this question is a constant theme for dis- 
cussion in the legislature. For neglected children there are charity 
"particular" schools, but they may be admitted to training institutions 
and educated therein. 

The provisions of the law for the inspection and management of 
schools and the due qualification of teachers are two of the most 
important features of the system. Prominent men, like Cuvier (1811), 
Cousin, the great Frencli philosopher and pedagogue (1836), Mr. 
Nichols (1838), Dr. Bache (1838), Mr. Hickson (1840), in their reports 
on education in Holland have dwelt largely on these points, and their 
conclusions have had great influence in producing the present superior 
condition of the Dutch schools. 

One unfavorable feature of the common schools in Holland is the 
overcrowding of the classes. From 40 to 50 children are considered 
ED 95 16 



482 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

tlie maximum number in a class, but tliese limits, not being specified 
by la-^, are frequently overstepped. In many i^laces, usually in cities, 
tliese conditions are so unfavorable that the Government schools are 
not able to meet their requirements when not assisted by private 
schools. 

The Government report shows that 10.88 per cent of the children of 
school age (G to 12) did not receive instruction during the year 1889. 
Out of 10,3SG conscripts 91 per cent could read and write; 151, or 1.45 
per cent, could only read, and 800, or 7.55 per cent, could neither read 
nor write; the highest percentage of illiteracy, 11.06, being in North 
Brabant. 

M. Cuvier, in his report on coeducation in Holland, 1811, says, in 
regard to the subject of coeducation : 

It being contrary to the customs of onr country, we •were rather shocked to lincl 
that both sexes -^cro admitted to the same schools. The authorities, however, 
assured us that they never had cause to regret this arrangement. It is the custom 
not only in schools for the poor biit in all burgher schools, in which ]iarents pay quite 
high tuition fees and have amj^le means to send their children to private schools. 

M. Cousin, in his report of 1836, says, on the same subject: 

One thing that surprised me greatly about these schools is that both sexes are 
admitted not only to the same rooms, but are seated side by side on the benches. 

In the Kevue Pedagogique Beige, February 15, 1895, we read: 

The greater number of schools in the Netherlands are coeducational. Coeducation 
of the sexes, which was prohibited in France a century ago by the immortal Con- 
dorcet, is in the Netherlands an established principle of iiedagogy, and successfully 
applied. Girls and boys of primary schools are in general educated together from 
their sixth to their twelfth year, inclusive. In the lower classes the boys are 
instructed by women teachers. Comjiulsory instruction has not yet been settled by 
law; yet there are at present very few children not attending some primary school. 

The following extracts from the Kevue Pedagogique Beige for March 
15, 1894, are given, as they present some interesting j)oints of infor- 
mation: 

The school law. passed in December, 1889, substituted for article 54 certain condi- 
tions under which free schools may receive support from the Government, which are 
as follows : 

1. Instruction must comprise: («) reading; (&) writing; (c) arithmetic; (d) ele- 
ments of the Dutch language; (e) history of the country; (/) geography; (17) rudi- 
ments of natural sciences; (/() singing; (i) elements of drawing; (_;) free gymnastic 
exercises and deportment. 

2. In girls' schools: (A-) the useful branches of manual training, provided that the 
pupils do not receive satisfactory instruction somewhere else in this branch. 

3. Instruction for girls must comprise at least eighteen hours j)er week, of which 
two are devoted to manual labor. 

A time-table must be sent to the inspector of the arrondissement, one copy of 
which must be posted at the school, in a place where it can be seen by all, including 
a table indicating holidays and vacations. 

4. The number of teachers must bo the same as that fixed for public schools by arti- 
cles 23 and 24 of the law. (a) The school must be directed by a teacher 23 years of 
age or over who has the rank of a head teacher, though the direction maybe intrusted 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



483 



temporarily — but not exceeding six months — to a teacher below 23 years of age who 
is not of the rank nieutioned. (b) The director must be aided by an assistant teacher 
■when the number of pupils exceeds 40; by at least two teachers when the number 
reaches 90, and for each group of 55 pupils over 90, one additional teacher. 

In order to entitle a free school to a State subsidy, it must have, beginning with 
January, 1894, in addition to the head teacher, the following corps of teachers : 



Pupils. 


1894. 


1895. 


1897. 


1899. 


Pupils. 


1834. 


1895. 


1897. 


1899. 


41 to 90 


1 
1 

2 
3 


1 
2 
2 
3 

a 


1 
2 
3 
4 
4 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


310 to 304 


3 
4 
5 
6 


4 
5 
6 

7 


5 
G 

7 
8. 


G 


91 to 144 


365 to 419 




145 to 199 


420 to 474 


8 


200 to 254 


475 to 529 c 


9 


255 to 309 











All such teachers must hold a diploma furnished by the State board. Schools 
that can not receive State aid are as follows: (a) AVhere the pupils aboA'e 6 years 
of age do not exceed 25; (h) schools that receive an annual remuneration of 80 
florins or more per pupil; (c) schools that during six months have not filled the 
vacancy of head teacher by a titulary of that rank or where during foiir months 
the place of an assistant teacher has been vacant; (r?) schools established for 
mercantile i)urposes. 

A school board desiring a subsidy should address their request to the State depu- 
ties (permanent corps of deputies) of the province in which the school is established. 

Before the 1st day of May the State deputies must decide whether the school is 
conducted according to the rules of the law, and if so, they determine the amount 
of State aid to bo granted in conformity with article 45 of the law, and send their 
decision without delay to the minister, as well as to the inspector of primary instruc- 
tion and the school board. Within the jieriod of thirty days after the date of this 
finding an appeal may bo made by the provincial commissioner, the inspector, or the 
school board. A royal decree regulates the amount of subsidy, and the law pro- 
vides the means of operation. 

The subsidy is calculated upon the same basis as that for public schools (see 
regulations of article 45) : 
For director : 

School of 90 pupils or less $100.50 

School of 91 to 199 pupils 120. 60 

School of 200 to 309 pupils 160. GO 

School of 310 to 419 pupils 201.00 

School of 420 pupils or more 241. CO 

For each of the assistant teachers, in agreement with conditions mentioned above: 

School of 41 to 90 pupils $60. 30 

School of 91 pupils and more 80. 40 

If these assistant teachers have reached their twenty-third year and have the rank 
of a head teacher, $120.60. 

When the staff of teachers exceeds the minimum as determined by article 24 of 
the law, the subvention is increased for 1 teacher to $60.30 where the school has 90 
pupils or less and to $80.40 in a school with 91 to 309 i^upils; for 2 teachers or more 
to $80.40 per teacher where the school has 310 pujiils and over. 

One should by no means overlook the fact that these figures rejiresent the amount 
of State subvention only, and not the real remuneration of the members of the 
teaching force. The communal teachers have a remuneration fixed by the commu- 
nity according to prescriptions of the law. The nouofficial schools fix the remuner- 
ation of teachers as they please. 

If the school teaches, in addition to the obligatory branches, at least two of the 
following subjects, (1) principles of- the French language; (2) principles of the 



484 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95, 

German language; (3) principles of the English language, or (4) principles of math- 
ematics, the subsidy is increased to $80.40 for 1 teacher where there are 90 pnpilsor 
less; to $100.60 per teacher, with an allowance for two more teachers, if there are 90 
to 199 pupils; and to $100.60 per teacher, with an allowance for three additional 
teachers, if the school numbers 200 pupils and over. 

Instruction can not lie given in buildings or on premises that have been condemned 
by the inspector of the medical service as unhealthy or too small for accommodating 
all the children. The inspector must give his reasons for disapprobation in writing 
and send copies of the same to the permanent corps of deputies, the communal 
administration, the school inspector, and the school director. The jiermanent corps 
of deputies directs the burgomasters and aldermen of the community where such 
premises are situated to ijublish the declaration. 

An appeal against tlie inspector's decision can be made to the permanent corps of 
deputies by (a) the inspector of the school district; (?>) the director of the school; 
(c) the proprietor or tenant of the premises ; (d) the parents or teachers of the pupils. 

The ajipeal must be made within thirty days. A tinal appeal may be addressed to 
the Crown against the decision of the corjjs of deputies. During the period of 
appeal and until the final decision the instruction may be continued on the premises, 
unless the inspector of the sanitary service has ordered it closed for reasons set forth, 
in a written report; but instruction maybe recommenced if the inspector of the 
sanitary service declares in writing that the premises have been sufficiently im- 
proved and the number of pui^ils properly limited. 

Tlie above shows that the law has laid down precise instructions 
concerning subsidies to free schools, so as to prevent the Government 
from sustaining institutions that may be undesirable for any reason. 
A school must be a good school in every respect to entitle it to State 
aid. Communal schools receive State subsidies rated according to the 
number of pupils and teachers and in agreement to the scale given 
above, besides 25 per cent of the expenditures of establishment, 
building, or grounds, in as far as these expenditures are not incumbent 
upon some other i)arty. The rooms of these schools may be put, by 
the communal authority, at the disposal of those who wish to give 
religious instruction after class hours. Free schools receiving subsidies 
may introduce religious instruction or not; the State does not interfere 
in this matter. The Netherlands adoj)ted the i^rinciple of religious 
neutrality in the public schools by the law of 1806, the constitution of 
1846, and the laws of 1857 and 1878. 

At a recent date the Government proposed to the Chambers to sub- 
sidize " middle schools for girls." This project created opposition on the 
part of the "feministes," to which the ministry has been constrained to 
defer, for it now seems certain that Minister van Houten will abandon 
the idea. The "feministes" make it their aim to suppress the special 
schools for girls. They demand that all middle schools shall be made 
coeducational, and that the Government shall only grant subsidies to 
institutions for both sexes. M. van Houten is personally in favor of 
this theory, as his former writings prove, but the Eoman Catholics are 
hostile to the princii)le of coeducation of the sexes. 

Young girls who desire to devote themselves to the higher education 
attend the courses of the " gymnasia." There are in Holland about 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 485 

29 of these '^ gymnasia," of wbicli 4 are nousubsidized. These all beloug 
to the communes, which decide whether a gymnasium shall be coeduca- 
tional or reserved exclusively for young men; but in 1894 the Komau 
Catholic provinces of Maestricht and Breda refused to open their gym- 
nasia to young girls. In the Protestant i^rovinces it is different; in 
Eotterdam, for example, there are at present 13, and in Amsterdam 26 
young women attending the courses of such coeducational institutions. 
In every instance the boys show the greatest deference for their girl 
fellow-students. Nothing detrimental to the cause of coeducation has 
been noticed in these schools. 

There are four universities in the Netherlands which admit women 
to their courses. Between 1880-81 and 1893-94 the celebrated Univer- 
sity of Utrecht admitted 118 women students. This year 55 young 
ladies were matriculated; at Groningen 13, Utrecht 16, Leiden 11, and 
at the communal university of Amsterdam 15. Of these young women, 
11 study medicine, 19 philosophy and letters, 12 natural sciences, and 
13 elective branches. 

Holland has but 4 women doctors. The first, Mile. Aletta Jacobs, 
who has a diploma from Groningen University, established herself in 
Amsterdam on September 15, 1879, after having completed a most 
brilliant course of studies, where she was authorized by Minister Thor- 
becke to practice medicine. Mile. Jacobs has had the courage to defend 
and propagate in Holland the IMalthusian doctrine,- and though ridi- 
culed and upbraided at the outset, she has finally succeeded in incul- 
cating her ideas iiito the minds of many eminent persons of the country. 
The Malthusian Society of Holland, which is constantly increasing in 
adherents, numbers among its honorary members M, S. Van Houten, 
the prime minister, and has for its president M. B. H. Heldt, member 
of the States-General. There are also in its ranks«other men, distin- 
guished alike for their learning and prominence. Mile. Jacobs has 
become the wife of one of the most eminent m.en in Amsterdam, M. G. V, 
Gerittson, who is fixmous as a financier, and is considered one of the 
foi emost orators of the Second Chamber of the States-General. 

-Mother woman physician, Mme. Du Saar, has made a great reputa- 
tion as an oculist. Mme. Tusschenbroek was many years assistant to 
M. Mendes, of Lyons, who is the first gynecologist of Amsterdam and 
stands high in that branch of his profession. The fourth woman doctor 
is Mme. Johanna C, Spruyt. 

A large number of young girls j)ractice pharmacy, which profession 
seems appropriate to tlieir sex. There are in the Netherlands 727 so- 
called "aides" (assistants), of whom 414 are men and 313 women. But, 
although the Hollandish universities have distributed 15 apothecary 
dij)lomas to young girls there is not one woman who conducts a ijrivate 
pharmacy, though it is said one will shortly be opened in Utrecht, con- 
ducted by Mme. Th. Olivier. 

There are seven women possessing apothecary's diplomas who prac- 



486 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-93. 

tice their iirofession, among wlioui are Mine. Alice Grutterink, who is 
chief j)harm«icist of the Coolsingel Hospital, in E otter dam j and another 
is pharmacist at the Hospital Wilhelmiua, of Amsterdam. Since 1880, 
a lady pharmacist, Mile. Charlotte Jacobs, who is a sister of Dr. Geritt- 
son, nee Aletta Jacobs, has established herself in Batavia, where she 
owns a pharmacy and conducts it with the assistance of her husband. 

There are also in Holland several women dentists and lirst-class 
nurses, who were trained iu the sx)ecial schools of Croix-Kouge, in La 
Haye, or Oroix-Blanche, of Amsterdam. 

Mr. Ipsen, in Vor Ungdom, says: 

The energy witli which the education of the higher grades is pursued in Holland 
in the various hranches, and the conser|uent abnormal increase in the learned j^roles- 
sions has led to serious results. Nervousness, -which formerly was exceiitional, has 
found a productive soil in the Netherlands, and facts show that knowledge in many 
instances has been bought too dearly. Even the phlegmatic character of the Hol- 
landers can not withstand the pressure, and a reaction has already supervened, whose 
influence, it is hoped, will be felt when a normal equilibrium has been regained. 

SUPERINTENDENCE OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 

The State supervision of schools, under the supreme control of the 
minister of the interior, is in charge of inspectors, district school super- 
intendents, and superintendents of arroudissements. 

A provincial board is composed of 1 inspector and 1 school superin- 
tendent of each district in the respective jirovinces. The provincial 
boards of primary instruction meet three times a year, receive the 
reports of all the inspectors, consider the interests of primary educa- 
tion, and make an annual statement to the minister of the interior, who 
has the authority to convoke at the capital an assembly of delegates 
from i)rovincial boards, in order to discuss topics of general educational 
interest. 

The local supervision of schools rests upon the burgomaster and the 
aldermen. 

Inspectors. — There are 3 inspectors, whose jurisdiction embraces from 
3 to 4 provinces each ; 25 district school superintendents, 1 for each dis- 
trict; and 1 school superintendent for each of the 94 arroudissements. 
For the sake of greater security, the councilors of a community may also 
ai)point commissions to inspect all schools at least twice a year and 
ascertain if the law governing elementary instruction has been carried 
out. 

Communities that may unite to establish and support schools can 
have a commission in common, composed of their burgomaster and 
aldermen, and, according to the amendments of the law of 1878, without 
regard to the number of inhabitants, though formerly the law demanded 
3,000. For communities exceeding this number a special commission 
had to be appointed by the local councils. 

Inspectors are nominated, suspended, or discharged by the King. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 487 

They receive in addition to their annual salary an allowance for travel- 
ing and incidental expenses while ijerforming their official duties. 

According to article 77 of the law, inspectors must visit the schools 
and communicate, either orally or in writing, with the district and 
arrondissement school superintendents and the local commissions and 
councils for the purpose of devising means for the improvement of pub- 
lic instruction. They must consult the minister of the interior on offi- 
cial business and submit to him annually a general report on the 
condition of schools, and such rejiort must be based upon written 
reports of the local boards and upon x>ersonal and private notes. 

Once a year the inspectors are to be convened by the minister of the 
interior to deliberate iipon questions of i^ublic education under his 
direction. 

District school superintendents are nominated by the King for life, 
and may be suspended, discharged, or pensioned, where the necessity 
arises, by his authority also. They are sworn in by the minister of the 
interior and are obliged to reside in a locality pointed out to him, and 
may hold another office. 

They sliall visit institutions for the training of teachers in their respective dis- 
tricts, attend meetings of the district school superintendents for the purpose of 
discussing school matters, and report annually before the 1st of May to the inspector 
of their district, and send a copy of such report to the States-General. 

Arrondissement school superintendents are nominated by the King 
for a term of six years, but are eligible for renomination. They are 
sworn in before the royal commissioner of the province, and can at any 
time be discharged by the King. These superintendents must reside 
within the borders of their jurisdiction, unless they receive a special 
permit from the minister to live elsewhere. 

They shall keep a record of all public and public-private [semipublic] schools in 
their arrondissements and of such teachers employed as are classed under article 8 
of the law. They shall have knoTvledgo'of the school books used in each school, iiay 
stated visits to all normal schools and normal institutions, report to the district 
school superintendent on ail school affairs, and attend the meetings of the school 
commissioners. 

The King, as the highest authority, is the final arbitrator on all 
questions arising in school matters concerning the teachers. He 
extends privileges to teachers and grants subsidies to the communes 
for school purposes and fixes the boundaries of school districts, etc. 
The minister of the interior acts as adviser and counselor to the King 
in all these affairs. 

The parish council of Hilversum, in establishing new regulations for 
the appointment of school committees, have recently decreed that two 
women shall be included in each committee. The minister in response 
to an inquiry concerning the legality of this action replied "that the 
law does not prevent women from occupying a place on school commit- 
tees." The decision was received with applause by the friends of 
education. 



488 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. 



Under the law of the Netberlauds the term "lager onderwijs" (pri- 
mary iustructiou) does not apply to — 

(fl) Instructors of special branches, as singing, needlework for girls, 
drawing-, principles of agriculture, gymnastics, or fancywork. 

(h) Schools in which such branches are exclusively taught. 

(c) Schools in which children over C years of age are not admitted 
and where only preparatory lessons are given. Thus nursery or infant 
schools do not come under the provision of the law, because only pre- 
l)aratory instruction is imparted to children under 6 years of age. 
These schools, however, are supported both by public and private funds. 

{d) Military instructors. 

(e) Schools for the deaf and dumb, blind, idiots, or for those defective 
in speech. 

Number and kinds of primary schools in the 11 protrinces. 



Tear. 


rublic. 


Subsidized 

private 
schools, a 


Nousubsi- 

dized 
denomina- 
tional 
schools. 


Total. 


1893 94 


3,022 
2, 952 
2,946 


34 
57 
61 


b 1. 317 
1,206 
1, 183 


4,373 
4,215 
4,190 


1889 90 


1888 89 








+ 76 


-27 


+ 134 


+ 183 





a "Bijzondere scholen" have been placed with private schools as being the nearest term with which 
to de.siguate these schools. 

Tlie nonsubsidized private .scliools, 1,317, include : (1) Charity and orphan schools : 56 Protestant, 16 
Koiuan Catholic, and 3 Jewish schools. (2) Corporate schools: 233 schools for Christian national 
education (Reformed Church), 234 Protestant schools of other denominations. (3) Private or select 
schools: 175 Protestant, 45 Roman Catholic, 7 Jewish, and 26 schools of other denominations not 
specitied. 

There were 18 communes in North Brabant, Gelderland, Limburg, and 
Utrecht which in 1889 had no public schools, and 12 of these communes 
belonged to the latter province. 

Nursery or infant schools. 



Public Private 
infant I infant 
schools. ' schools. 



1893-94 

1889-90 

1888-89 

Difference in five years. 



135 


870 


120 


840 


i:;i 


8U 



+ 29 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



489 



'^repetition" schools. 1 

At the close of 1889 519 commuues had 1 each of these schools, and 
138 other communes had evening schools, distributed as follows : 



Province. 


Number of communes 
with — 


Province. 


Number of communes 
■with — 


Evening 
schools. 


Repetition 
schools. 


Evening 
schools. 


Kepetition 
schools. 




41 

12 
13 
11 
26 
12 
7 


70 
65 
90 
75 
64 
27 
28 




4 
3 
1 

8 


24 






50 


South Holland 




24 


North Holland 




2 




Total 




Utrecht 


138 


519 













The following table presents a record of the population of Holland 
(census of January 1, 1894, and January 1, 1890), the number of chil- 
dren of school age, and of those not receiving primary instruction 
during the year, compared with the record of January 1, 1889 : 





January 1— 


Diiferenco 
in five 
years. 




1894. 


1890. 


1889. 


Population : 


2, 341, 484 
2, 391, 427 


2, 228, 487 
2, 282, 928 


2, 232, 183 
2, 273, 749 


+ 109,301 
+117,678 






Total 


4,731,911 


4,511,415 


4, 505, 932 


+225, 979 




Children over 6 and under 12 years of age : 


315, 509 
311,602 


301, 571 
298, 545 


301, 997 
299, 059 


+ 13,512 
+ 12,543 


Girls 




Total 


627, 111 


600, 116 


601,056 

31, 935 
39, 386 


+ 26,055 




Not receiving primary instruction- 


26, 983 
33, 675 


29, 101 
36, 188 


— 4,952 

— 5, 711 


Girls 




Total 


60, 658 


65, 289 


71,321 


— 10, 663 





The foregoing table shows that the number of children over 6 and 
under 12 in 1889 was increased by 26,055 in 1894, or 4,31 per cent; the 
number of those who did not receive primary instruction was decreased 
by 10,GG3 or 14.97 per cent. 

Out of the total population on January 1, 1889, of 4,505,932 inhab- 
itants, there were 001,056 children, 301,997 boys and 299,059 girls of 
school age. Of these, 31,935 boys and 39,386 girls, making a total of 
71,321, or 11.87 per cent, did not receive instruction in public or private 
schools. In 1893-94 this number was 60,658, or 9.67 per cent of all the 
children of school age, 627,111. Consequently 967 children (including 
the blind, deaf, and dumb, children of strangers, and those whose par- 
ents could not provide proper clothing) in each 10,000 from to 12 
years of age were not enrolled in public or private schools. 

I Accordiug to the latest statistics, 1893-94, there are now 111 evening and 543 
repetition schools in operation in Holland. 

ED 95 16* 



490 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



Piquls Idonrjing to day schools. 



Public schools: 

Boys 

Gills 

Sal)sidized private scliools: 

Bovs 

Gii-Is 

Nousiibsidized private schools: 

Boys 

Girls 

Total: 

Boys 

Girls 





January 1 — 




Difference 
in five 
years. 


1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1888-89. 


262 222 
21l!729 


251,114 
203, 812 


24S, 476 
202, 607 


+13, 746 
+ 9,122 


443 

952 


1,116 
2,133 


1,127 
2,209 


— 684 

— 1,257 


92, 741 

115, 442 


82, 215 
102, 588 


80, 851 
100, 389 


+ 11,890 
+15, 053 


355, 406 
328, 123 


334, 445 
308, 533 


330, 454 
305, 205 


+ 21,952 

+ 22, 918 



Day pupils also atteiicUng eveuiiig schools yvere distributed as 
follows : 



Public schools: 

Bovs 

Gii-ls 

Subsidized private schools : 

Boys 

Girls 

IN'onsiibsidized iirivato schools : 

Boys 

Girls 

Total : 

Bovs 

Giils 





January 1 — 




Difference 
in five 








1893-94. 


1889-00. 


1888-89. 


years. 


9,540 


10, 133 


10, 170 


— 630 


8,310 


7,637 


8,151 


+ 159 


27 


135 


122 


— 95 


5 


9 


15 


— 10 


3,910 


4,771 


5,228 


—1,318 


1,949 


2,692 


2,630 


— 081 


13, 477 


15, 039 


15,520 


—2. 043 


10, 204 


10, 338 


10, 790 


— 532 



In 1893-94 tliere has been a general decrease from 1888-89 in all 
departments except in the girls' department in public schools. 

The number of day pupils instructed gratuitously is shown in the 
following table: 





January 1— 


Difference in 




1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1888-89. 


five years. 




Boys. 


Girls. 


Boys. 


Girls. 


Boys. 1 Girls. 


Boys. 


Girls. 




127, 729 

2 

23, 547 


104,949 
109 

33, 028 


136, 575 

115 
21, 076 


112, 920 

023 

31, 599 


135,444 113,012 

128 628 

21, 473 30, 407 


-7, 715 
— 126 
+2,074 


8.003 


Subsidized private schools 

Nonsnbsidizsd private schools 


— 519 
+ 2,561 


Total 


151, 278 


138, 080 


157,760 145.142 1 157. 045 144.107 


5 707 6 o?l 















The above table shows that the number of children instructed gratu- 
itously in 1893 decreased by 11,788 from the number instructed five 
years previously, while in 1888 there Avas an increase of 4,3G6 over 

1887-88. 

Pupils attending evening schools exclusively. 





January 1 — 


Difference in 




1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1888-89. 


five years. 




Boys. Girls. 


Boys. 


Girls. 


Boys. 


Girls. Boys. Girls. 


Public schools 


1,005 

15 

1,354 


383 
""'757' 


1,889 

24 

1,402 


467 
'"'462' 


2,131 

22 

1,372 


671 
'"'563' 


—526 

- 7 

— 18 


—288 


Subsidized private schools 

Nonsubsidized private schools 


"" + 194 


Total 


2,974 


1,140 


3,315 


929 


3,525 


1 234 1 fisi 


94 











EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



491 



The above figures indicate a slight decrease iu the attendance at the 
evening schools, except in the uonsubsidized private schools for girls. 

Pupils attending '^repetition" {continuation) schools. 





January 1 — 




Difl'ereuce 
in five 
years. 


1S93-94. 


1889-90. 


1888-89. 


13, 399 
3,492 


13, 109 

2, 850 


12, 633 
2, 552 


+ 766 
+ 940 


250 

78 


312 
95 


300 

84 


— 44 

— C 


1,610 
031 


1,163 
1,021 


1,122 
886 


+ 488 
— 255 


15, 265 
4,201 


14, 674 
3,966 


14,055 
3,522 


+1,210 
+ 079 



Public schools : 

Boys 

Girls 

Subsidized private schools : 

Bovs 

Girls 

Nonsubsidized private schools : 

Bovs 

Girls 

Tot.il: 

Boys 

Giils 



The number of tliose attending repetition schools in 1893 increased 
principally in the public scliools and in the nonsnbsidized private 
institutions for boys, while a small decrease is noticed in the subsidized 
private schools and a somewhat larger decrease in the nonsnbsidized 
X)rivate schools for girls. 

By adding the number of children of school age (G to 12) for 1893, 
given ill the table on page 489, to the number of children attending 
repetition schools (over 12 years of age) we obtain a total of G10,577 
children, and for 1889 a total of 618,633 children. 

The teachers emi)loyed in the foregoing schools numbered 16,953 in 
1893, and 15,192 in 1SS9. The average of pupils to each teacher was 43 
and 45, respectively. The number of pupils in attendance on May lis 
taken as the average for the scholastic year. 

The employment at labor of children under 12 years of age was pro- 
hibited in 1889. School attendance is encouraged by means of prizes, 
school entertainments, and rewards, and distribution of savings-bank 
books, principally in 269 communes. A sum of about 815,968 was 
spent iu this manner in 1893. 

The attendance at repetition schools is not compulsory, and instruc- 
tion is given gratuitously. The expenses are borne by the communes. 

Infant schools. 



Public: 

Boys under C years of ago. 
Boys over 6 years of age. . 
Girls under 6 years of age 
Girls over 6 years of age. . 

Total enrollment 

Private : 

Boys under 6 years of age. 
Boys over 6 years of age.. 
Girls under years of age 
Girls over 6 years of age. ., 

Total enrollment 

General total , 



January 1- 



11, 005 
1,476 

10,415 
1,377 



24, 273 



34, 709 
4,855 

36,911 
6,041 



82, 516 



106, 789 



1889-90. 



10, 256 
1,542 
9,900 
1,500 



23, 198 



34, 102 
4,417 

36, 080 
5,694 



80, 353 



9,857 
1,799 
9,455 
1,675 



22, 786 



32, 944 
3,699 

30, 062 
5,088 



77, 793 



100, 579 



Difierenco 
in Ave 
years. 



+ 1, 148 

— 323 
+ 960 

— 298 



-f 1,765 
-t- 1,156 
+ 849 
+ 953 



+ 6,210 



492 



EDUCATION REPORTj 1894-95. 



The public infant scliools are intended for poor children from 3 to 6 
years of age. Leyden has, for instance, three schools of this kind ; in 
each of them there are from 300 to 400 children. Infant schools have 
been in operation ever since 1806, when a regulation of the law govern- 
ing public instruction enjoined upon the inspectors "to make endeavors 
for the establishment of a sufficient number of infant schools." These 
institutions prospered, 'especially under the patronage of the Society of 
Public Good, which from the year 1823 founded a considerable number. 
The infant schools patronized by this society were neutral in regard to 
religion. The various denominational communes created on their part 
the " salles d'asiles," having a sectarian basis. Other communes opened 
public infant schools. The law of 1878 on primary instruction did not 
include these institutions in the number of schools. They are, however, 
subject to the regulations of article 5 (relating to hygienic conditions 
and cleanliness of schoolhouses) and to article 72 (relating to the super- 
intendence exercised by the municipalities and inspectors). 

Teachers of infant schools are not required to hold a certificate of 
capacity, and the State has not done anything in behalf of their pro- 
fessional training. The Froebel method has been introduced into many 
of these schools. 

Instruction was also extended to those detained in the various j)enal 
institutions, which include 3 reformatory schools, 31 penitentiaries, and 
45 houses of detention. Children under 16 years of age are placed if 
necessary in one of the three State reformatories. 



Persons detained who received instruction or were excused on account of sickness or 

old age. 





Not admitted. 


Admitted 

to in- 
struction. 






On account 
of sick- 
ness, etc. 


Were suffi- 
ciently 
instructed. 


Total 
detained. 


In reformatory establishmonts : 
] 89:3 94 






632 
658 

142 
463 

3,192 
3,160 

395 
353 


632 


1889 90 






058 


In special penitentiaries : 

1893 91 


135 
264 

9,202 
9,128 

5.543 
6,375 


44 
60 

1,085 
561 

409 
142 


321 


1889-90 


787 


In ordinary penitentiaries : 

1893 94 . . 


13, 479 


1889 90 


12, 849 


In houses of detention : 

1893-94 


6,347 


1889-90 


6,870 






Total : 

1893 94 .• 


14, 880 

15, 767 
14, 891 


1,538 

763 

1, 126 


4, 361 
4,634 
3,996 


20, 779 


1 889-90 


21, 164 


1888 89 


20, 013 








—11 


-f412 


+ 365 


+766 







The statistics show that in 1893-94 of 20,779 detained 1,538, or 7.4 
per cent, were well instructed j 14,880, or 71.6 per cent, were not 
admitted; 4,361, or 20.98 per cent, attended the lessons. 

Of the 4,361 admitted to instruction, 69.8 per cent acquired a 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 493 

knowledge of the primary branches before their dismissal from j^eual 
punishment, 25.2 per cent were found deficient, and 5 per cent were 
unable to read or write. 

From the foregoing tables it appears that kindergarten and primary 
instruction was imparted to the following number of children and 
persons : 

lu iufaut schools : 

1893-94 106,789 

1889-90 103, 551 

1888-89 100, 579 

In primary schools (age 6-12) : 

1893-94 566,453 

1889-90 534, 827 

1888-89 529, 735 

lu all peual institutious : 

1893-94 4,361 

1889-90 4,634 

1888-89 3, 996 

The school regulations require that — 

Primary schools shall be open without intermission the whole year, except holidays. 
During class hours the master shall he present from the opening of school to closing; 
he must not engage in anything not connected with teaching, nor absent himself 
except in cases of absolute necessity. The master must not permit pupils to leave 
the school unnecessarily, but require attention and good behavior both in the class 
room and on the playgrounds. Pupils must be enrolled, as far as possible, for fixed 
terms. Instruction in the different branches shall, as far as possible, be conveyed 
to the i)ui}ils by means of the blackboard. An examination shall be held once a 
year at each school. Qualified pupils shall then be promoted from the, lower to the 
higher grades, and, if circumstances permit, rewards shall be given for diligence 
and merit. A deserving pupil, when leaving school after completion of the course 
of study, shall be presented with a certificate of honor. 

A code of regulations shall be drawn up for each school, and this, whether written 
or printed, shall be displayed on a board, hung up in the class room, and from time 
to time be read and explained by the master. 

Teachers. — Under the provisions of the law of 1857 there were two 
classes of assistant teachers, but under subsequent regulations there 
are only head masters and teachers. Pupil teachers are not included 
in the law. 

Only persons of good morals who possess the qualifications required 
by law are admitted as teachers. Foreign teachers must obtain a 
special permit from the King. Tliese rules do not apply to those who 
teach children of private families exclusively nor to persons who vol- 
untarily offer their services and receive no remuneration therefor. 

Teachers are not allowed under the law to pursue any profession out- 
side of their school duties, nor are they permitted to hold any ottice or 
allow members of their family to engage in any x)rofessional pursuit 
at their residences. The King, however, can suspend this regulation 
in special cases. 

Besides the two classes of teachers mentioned, there are pupil teachers 



494 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

or aspirants, i. e., young pupils who are other wise qualified, but have 
not reached the requisite age, or those students in normal schools who 
are teaching in a primary school connected therewith. Persons 
teaching modern languages, drawing, gymnastics, etc., are considered 
"special teachers." 

Women are largely employed as teachers, not only in coeducational 
schools hut also in the classes of younger boys. It rarely happens, 
however, that women teachers are advanced to the highest classes. 
The positions in the higher grade girls' schools are remunerative and 
much sought after, and daughters of rich and distinguished families, 
who are by no means obliged to earn a living or make teaching their 
profession, often fill such places. 

Appointments. — Head masters or mistresses of communal schools are 
ai^pointed by the councils of the communes, who select their names 
from a list of candidates (not less than G) who have passed the pre- 
scribed competitive examination. The head master and regular teach- 
ers are appointed by communal councils from lists of at least 3 candi- 
dates who have been proposed by the aldermen in concurrence with 
the local school superintendent. Competitive examinations are not 
required for these appointments. 

The councils are empowered to discharge teachers from schools either 
by allowing them to resign, or by request of a district school inspector, or 
burgomaster and aldermen. In such cases the i^hrase "not honorably" 
may be added to the paper of dismissal. 

In order to obtain a position as teacher it is requisite that candidates 
shall present to the authorities in charge of appointments certificates 
of qualification and moral conduct furnished by the burgomaster of the 
commune in which the applicant lived during the last two years, or by 
the commissioner of the province. 

The only approach to tbe monitorial system in the schools of Holland 
is where young people of either sex, who have written authority from 
the school superintendent of the arrondissements, are admitted to 
schools as pupil teachers, under the following conditions: {a) They 
must be over 15 years of age and under 20; (h) they must work under 
the direct supervision of a competent teacher; and, (c) having per- 
formed these duties for a period of three months, a xiupil teacher must 
X)roduce a certificate, signed by the head master of the school to which 
he or she belonged, stating that conduct and i^rogress are satisfactory. 

The following cori^s of teachers was engaged in 1893 in 4,373 jirimary 
schools, and in 1889 in 4,215 schools : 



1880-90. 



Head masters 3, 836 

Head mistresses ! 515 

Male teachers | 8, 409 



3,679 

498 
7,571 



JTemalo teachers 4, 193 i 3, 444 



Total I 16,953 

Pupil teachers j 2, 807 



15, 192 
2,332 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



495 



These teacliers were employed iu the different classes of primary 
schools as follows: 





1893-94. 


1889-90. 




Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


Male. 


Feraale. 


Total. 


Pul>lin schools proper: 


2,92^ 
6,355 

17 
39 

801 
2,015 


76 
2,663 

18 
41 

421 
1,489 


3,004 
9,018 

35 

80 

1,312 
3,504 


2,855 
5,799 

32 

51 

792 
1,721 


75 

2,202 

24 
57 

399 
1,185 


'' 930 




8 001 


Private subsidized schools : 


56 




103 


Private n on subsidized schools : 


1,191 




2,906 






Total 


12, 215 


4,708 


a IG, 953 


11,250 


3,942 


15, 192 






Public infant schools : 


2 


2G1 


263 

590 


3 


198 


201 




574 
* 




1 








Total 


1 


i853 






"75 




1 








private infant schools : 


13 


1,092 


1,105 
1,325 


20 


1,069 


1 089 




1 380 












Total 


j 


c2,430 






2,469 




1 












d52 






55 













alncre>as6 in four years, 1,761. 
l> Increase iu four years, 78. 



c Decrease in four years, 39. 
d Decrease in four years, 3. 



Examinations of primary teacliers, both public and i>rivate, are 
ordered by the State on subjects from a to i, or a to Jc, in article 2 of 
the law. Certihcates of efficiency are : (a) Those entitling to give home 
or school instruction iu subjects of article 2, under a to i or 1c; [b) 
those conferring the rank of head master, and entitling the person 
certified to give home or school instruction in subjects of article 2, 
under a to i or 1c, and subjects mentioned under o, 2h Q. / (^) those 
entitling the teacher to give home and school instruction iu enumerated 
subjects. 

Candidates who are 18 yeans of age may be admitted to these exam- 
inations, and must notify the local school superintendent in due time 
and submit certificates of age and moral character. Such candidates 
may be examined either in the province in which they reside or in 
which they desire to be apj)ointed. The first examination in the year 
is held on April 1 ; the second in October. 

Of these candidates, 390 male and 455 female passed their final 
examinations at the end of the year 1893-94, and received certificates, 
besides 166 persons, 78 male and 88 female, in subject j, and 80 female 
in subject h. For 1889 there was a total of 1,137 candidates receiving 
teachers' certificates. 

Salaries of teachers. — Each teacher receives a fixed annual salary, 
which in no instance shall be less than $281 for the head master of a 
school, and not less than $241 for those holding a diploma as head 
master, and not less than $161 for regular teachers. The head master 
of a school is entitled to free residence and a garden, if possible, or an 
allowance for house rent. 



496 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



Ill 1893 the salaries of bead masters ranged from $281 to $1,085. Of 
these, 2,171 received from $281 to $441, and 830 ranged from $442 to 
$1,045. The highest salaries were x>aid to three head teachers, who 
received from $1,046 to $1,085. The salaries of regular teachers ranged 
from $161 to $643. 

Three thousand one hundred and one teachers were paid salaries from 
$161 to $241; 79 teachers were paid from $603 to $640, and the remain- 
der, numbering 5,838, each received from $242 to $602. 

The funds for salaries in 1893-94 were derived from the following 
sources : 



A. From the Government : 

For primary-school teachers 

For teachers of normal schools and practice schools 
For teachers of normal courses 

Total 

B. From the communes: 

For head masters 

For teachers 

For special remunerations 

Total 

C. From school fees 

General total 

General total in 1888-89 

Increase in five years 



$4, 516 

71, 678 

141, 004 



1, 205, 468 

2, 600, 001 

11, 632 



3,817,101 



770 



4, 035, 069 
3 604,449 



430, 620 



$4, 582 

78, 887 

165, 870 



249, 339 



1,156,982 

2, 228, 777 

5,461 



3, 391, 220 



840 



3, 641, 399 



Pensions of teachers. — Under the i)rovision of article 38 of the law all 
teachers who have reached the age of 65 years, and those who are 
mentally or physically disabled, after ten years' service, are entitled to 
pensions. Head masters who are suspended by reason of schools hav- 
ing been discontinued receive half pay for a term of five years if within 
this period they do not obtain other employment the remuneration for 
which is equal to their previous salary as a teacher. These pensions 
are paid quarterly, and they amount to one-sixtieth of the annual sal- 
ary for each year of service, but must never exceed two-thirds of the 
former salary. 

Ill 1803 pensions were granted to 27 teachers, male and female, and 
to 41 head masters; in 1889 to 13 teachers and to 45 head masters. 
These ])eusions ranged from $80 to $523 for each head master, and from 
$40 to $321 for regular teachers. The total sum expended for pensions 
of i)ublic primary-school teachers amounted in 1893 to $138,280 and 
in 1889 to $114,507. 

In conformity with article 41 of the law of August 17, 1878, all 
teachers contributed 2 per cent of their annual salaries to the pension 
fund, which amounted in 1893 to $75,943 and in 1889 to $68,103. The 
pension system relieves those teachers who have served faithfully as 
such from actual care and anxiety as to provision for old age. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 497 

The moral traiiiiu^- of the young is regulated by articles 22 and 33 of 
the law : 

School education shall conduce to the iutellectual development of the youug, who 
shall he trained in the Christian and social virtues by means of instruction in all 
appropriate and useful branches of knowledge. 

The lessons of religion are intrusted entirely to the minister and 
special teachers of theology. Regular teachers must refrain from 
teaching, doing, or permitting anything at variance with the respect 
due to the religious convictions of other sects. A teacher guilty of 
offense in this respect may be suspended for a term not exceeding one 
year, but in case of repetition of the offense he may be suspended for 
an indefinite period from the duties of a public-school teacher. The 
introduction of religious instruction into common schools is no depar- 
ture from the principles of the law. This feature has been adopted from 
practical considerations on account of the difficulties experienced by 
parents who can not obtain religious instruction for their children in 
other suitable places, but precautions are taken so that religious teach- 
ing shall not interfere with other lessons. The school simply is an 
agent between parents who desire their children to be initiated into 
religion and their respective religious teachers. 

SaHugs hanlcs. — Endeavor has been made by the school authorities 
to develop thrift in children by introducing the savings-bank system 
after the English model. In each class room there is kept a receptacle 
in shape of a flat wooden box, with numbered compartments arranged 
so as to receive temporarily the small earnings of the children. Once 
a week the contents are counted and deposited in a bank. 

Sclwol fees. — The local authorities were allowed, under the provisions 
of the law of 1857, to make priiiiary instruction gratuitous in the com- 
munes under their jurisdiction. One hundred and forty-six thousand 
and sixty-two, or 36 per cent of 406,329 children enrolled in public ele- 
mentary schools, in 1857 received gratuitous instruction ; and in 1876 
50 i)er cent, or, including all children under some public instruction, 58 
per cent. 

The estimate of December 31, 1889, showed that in 166 communes 
no fees were charged for children attending public primary schools. 

Such communes numbered in — 



164 1884 182 

1887 164 1883 196 

1886 179 1882 217 

1885 175 

In a report of the United States consul at Amsterdam in 1839 we 
find the following Information: 

The public primary schools of this city are divided into four classes. 

The first class, of which there are 51 at this time, are free schools. 

In the second-class schools, of which there are also a goodly number, the school 
money charged is for 1 child 15 cents, Dutch currency, or 6 cents American money, 
per week ; for 2 children of the same family, 12^ cents each, and for 3 children only 



498 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

10 cents each per vreek ; in tte tliird class tlie charge for 1 child is 20 florins, or ahout 
$8 per annum, and for 2 or more children of the same family 16 florins, or about $6.40, 
each; in the fourth class the charge for each child is 70 florins ($28) per annum, and 
for 2 children or more of same family 60 florins, or $24, each. 

School buildings. — The repairs aucl erection of school premises are 
regulated by articles 4, 5, and 50 of the law of August 17, 1878, and the 
building and furnishing of the same by the royal decrees of May 4, 
1883, and August 30, 1884. 

Schoolhouses in Holland are of diverse styles and have been con- 
structed as necessity demanded; but on the whole the Dutch have not 
displayed much taste in the architecture of public school buildings, 
says Mr. Ipsen in Yor TJngdom. The usual xilan of country school- 
houses in the Province of Utrecht in 1844 consisted of rooms about 52 
by 2G feet, bisected by glass partitions, and were intended for about 150 
cliildren. 

Some of these buildings much resemble the very old English school- 
houses; at The Hague, e. g., are seen square buildings without parti- 
tions, where the chief difference consists in the position of the seats 
for classes, and not in the room itself, the pupils being placed back 
to back instead of face to face. 

Another plan of a school building at Amsterdam for 500 children 
shows only one row of desks, and the great length of the room in pro- 
portion to its width is a serious defect. Both these styles, as far as 
new buildings are concerned, may be considered out of date. All new 
schoolhouses are excellent, and provided with modern improvements. 
A burgher school in Leyden, erected in 1890-91, will serve as an 
example. It has excellent ventilation, and the class rooms have 
higb ceilings and good light. In order to procure the best light possi- 
ble windows have been cut in the partition walls of the class rooms at 
such a height as to prevent the pupils from seeing each other. The 
halls of this school are unusually broad and paved with small grooved 
tiles. 

Mr. Ii)seu, in Vor Ungdom, says: 

In Dutch schools a Danish eye soon detects the absence of taste for embellishment 
and comfort which would be very inexpensive in many cases. Even in handsome 
new buildings there is a certain bare look, though ever^'thing is scrupulously neat 
and clean. 

Article G of the law of August 17, 1878, prescribes that the area of 
each schoolroom be at least 0.8 square meter for each pupil, with a 
space of at least 3.6 cubic meters per pupil; the height of the room 
being 4.5. The doors of the schoolroom must not be in direct contact 
with the air outside. The halls and vestibules are lighted sufficiently 
and must be at least 2 meters wide and not lower than 2^ meters high. 
The outside walls of a school building shall have at least 0.23 meter 
thickness. 

On the establishing of a new school, the communal council must 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



499 



observe tlie follo-wiug regulations of article 13 of the royal decree of 
May 4, 1883, iu regard to school furniture: 

Each scliool bench shall accommodate two children, and have a suijport for the 
lower part of the back. The tables shall be constructed with receptacles iu which 
the girls may keep their needlework. 

The modern equipments of schools iu Holland are very handsome, 
without any display of extravagance. The benches and tables are 
made to accommodate 4 children, 2 in front and 2 in the rear, the tables 
being provided with a space under the lid for school necessaries. There 
are appropriate benches in every room for scholars of different sizes, 
and children when entering a new class are first measured and then 
seated at the suitable tables. In infant and primary schools each class 
has its counting frame, and every slate is fitted with one of these useful 
devices. Great pains are taken to convey a correct idea of numbers 
and the principles of arithmetic by means of practical and intelligent 
methods. Blackboards are in general use. 

School hygiene. — Hygienic conditions of school buildings are regu- 
lated by articles 4, 5, and 50 of the law, and the royal decree of August 
29, 1884. Buildings condemned by the supervising health inspectors 
must remain closed for school purposes until the necessary improve- 
ments have been made. Persons transgressing against the law will be 
fined from $10 to $20, and for repeated offenses from $20 to $40 and 
imprisoned for a period of not less than eight days or more than one 
year. Schoolrooms must always be kept clean and in good order; and 
to that end they must always be aired during the recesses. Teachers 
are required to see that pupils are at all times cleanly, and at the same 
time exercise the greatest care in regard to their health. To this end 
baths have been introduced into some of the schools. 

School libraries. — The arrondissement libraries increased from 94 iu 
1889 to 101 iu 1893. The volumes were increased, during the same 
period, from 30,558 to 36,132. The names of 5,4G1 readers were regis- 
tered for 1893. One thousand two hundred and eighty-eight teachers' 
meetings were held during the year, in the above-mentioned arron- 
dissements, at which an average number of 3,525 public and 285 
l^rivate teachers were present. 



Expenditures hy ihe General Government for jirimary insiriiction. 





1893-04. 


1889-90. 


For inspection 


$59, 241 


$51, 537 




Training of teachers : 

State normal schools 


139, 866 

38, 258 
160, 308 

16, 023 


156, 084 
19 7''2 


Subsidies to normal schools 


State normal courses 


185 660 


Coutrihutiona toward normal courses and to head teachers of schools 
for the training of male and female teachers 








Total 


355, 054 


361, 466 





500 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

Expenditures by the General Government for primary instruction — Continued. 



Arrondissement libraries and extra allowance to teachers 

State primar J- schools 

Subvention a to communes for pensions 

Indemnifications by the Government (see art. 45 of the law) and additional 

sum for insufficient coutributifn in preceding year 

Contributions to communes according to article 49 

Traveling expenses to commissions in charge of teachers' examinations.. 

Pensions to teacliers 

Half pay to teachers without positions (art. 39) 

Half ])ay to 8cho(jl inspectors (art. 92) 

Subsidies to pension funds of officials employed in the school superinten- 

dency 

Contributions to private schools 



Aggregate . 



Increase in four years. 



$3, 146 

5,747 

29, 266 

1, 356, 072 

123, 572 

31, 121 

138, 280 

902 



336. 554 



2, 438, 9.55 
1, 868, 676 



$2, 729 

8,290 

29, 266 

1, 201, 497 

66,524 

31, 206 

114, 457 

177 

923 

605 



1, 868, 676 



Income of the Government for primary education. 



School fees of practice schools connected with normal schools 

Contributions of teachers toward the pension fund 

Balance covered back into treasury from former year 

Examination fees (art. 65 of the law) 

Total 

Increase in four years 



$5, 046 
75, 933 
71,512 
12, 253 



164, 744 
110, 144 



54, 600 



1889-90. 



$5, 707 
68, 103 
36, 334 



110, 144 



RECAPITULATION. 





$164, 744 
2, 438, 955 


$110, 144 
1, 868, 676 






Excess of expenditures over income of schools paid from the treasury 


2, 274, 211 
1, 758, 532 


1 758 532 








515, 679 









Expenditures of communes for primary instruction. 



Teachers' salaries 

Allowance for residences and rent of school premises. 

New schools 

Maintenance of school buildings 

Eurniture and material 

Heating and lighting of schools 

Local commissions 

Cf)Sts of competitive examinations of head teachers... 

Pensions for teachers (1858) 

Subsidies to private schools 

Training of teachers 

Payments to other communes 

Rewards for faithful school attendance 

Miscellaneous expenditures 



Total . 



Increase in four years . 



3, 817, 102 

66, 068 

622, 785 

207, 823 

297, 534 

194, 554 

7,277 

4,426 



15, 552 
64, 326 
24, 530 
1.5, 9G8 
51, 190 



5,389,136 
4, 598, 279 



790, 857 



1889-90. 



$3, 391, 224 

55, 396 

365, 474 

180, 903 

247, 784 

170, 515 

7,249 

5,412 

50 

23, 107 

71,023 

24, 309 

14, 754 

41, 079 



4, 598, 279 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 
Income of communea from primary instrtiction. 



501 



School fees 

Government subsidies toward pensions 

Indemnifications by the General Government in conformity with article 
45 of the law 

Government contributions (see art. 49) 

Contributions from other communes 

Raising of special funds (this includes a loan from the General Govern- 
ment of $3,057) 



Total 



Increase in four years. 



1893-94. 



$633, 801 
29, 265 

1, 284, 560 
123, 572 
24, 506 

15, 411 



2, 111, 115 
1, 855, 345 



255, 770 



1889-90. 



$553, 385 
29, 265 

1, 165, 162 
66, 524 

24, 294 

16, 715 



1, 855, 345 



EECAPITULATION. 



Total income from enumerated sources 
TotaFexpenditures 



Excess of expenditures over income of schools paid from the treas- 
ury of the communes 



$2,111,115 
5, 389, 136 



3, 278, 021 
2, 742, 934 



Increase in four years . 



535, 087 



$1, 855, 345 
4, 598, 279 



, 742, 934 



The following table gives a review of the actual expenditures of the 
General Government and the communes together for primary instruc- 
tion for the years 1878 to 1893, inclusive. The income is for school 



fees, etc. 



Tear. 



1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 



Expendi- 
tures. 



$3, 347, 998 
3,480,013 

3, 886, 816 

4, 645, 314 

5, 782, 735 

6, 602. 282 
5, 961, 522 
5, 085, 183 
5, 209, 401 



Income. 



$501, 574 
509, 375 
523, 307 
545, 339 
543, 939 
561, 678 
593, 259 
620, 060 
631. 691 



Tear. 



1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

Total 



Expendi- 
tures. 



$5, 240, 801 
5, 257, 927 
5, 166, 009 

5, 225, 007 

6, 061, 788 
6, 506, 124 
6, 319, 181 



83, 778, 051 



Income. 



$644, 863 
654, 876 
664, 545 
693, 551 
721, 029 
737, 142 
766, 950 



9, 913, 178 



The subsidies received by the communes from the General Govern- 
ment have been deducted from the communal expenditures and income, 
otherwise these su.ms would have been counted twice. 

The difference between expenditures for primary instruction and 
income from the same, 1878-1893, amounting to $73,864,873, was paid 
out of the General Government and communal treasuries. 

A new regulation came into operation in the Ketherland Indies on 
November 1, 1894, for the primary schools of Europeans and that por- 
tion of the population that has been assimilated with the Europeans. 
For the Island of Java there has been established a public school in 
every group that has not less than 20 European pupils, and for the 
neighboring islands 1 school in each community containing 15 European 
pupils. These schools are also accessible to the native children who 
are assimilated with Europeans, provided they have a sufiQcient knowl- 
edge of the Dutch language. These schools include the children of the 



502 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

black soldiers wlio are of African descent and liave embraced Cliris- 
tiauity. Such scliools are partly coeducational, though, there are special 
schools for girls. The scheme of instruction embraces reading, writing, 
arithmetic, the elements of the Dutch language, history of Holland 
and the Netherland Indies, geograi)hy, elements of natural sciences, 
singing, drawing, gymnastics, and in the special schools for girls, needle- 
work. The supervision of jjrimary instruction is intrusted to a director, 
assisted by several inspectors and a local commission. For inspection 
the Netherland Indies are divided into three divisions, the first com- 
jjrising a part of Java (Bantam, Batavia, Chcribon, etc.), Sumatra, and 
West Borneo; the second, the rest of Java (Tegal, Pekalonga, Sama- 
rang, Japara, etc.) and South Borneo; the third, the Island of Celebes, 
the Moluccas, and the small islands. Beside these there are a number 
of private schools that are entitled to a subsidy from the Government. 

THE NORMAL SCHOOLS (KAVEEKSCHOLEN). 

jSTormal schools are provided for by article 39, section 1, of the regu- 
lations approved by the royal decree of May 28, 1879. 

In the official rejyorts on education in Holland we find the normal 
schools and institutions for the training of teachers and head teach- 
ers, although properly classified under secondary instruction, included 
under the heading of primary instruction. 

A large number of normal institutions are maintained and provided 
for by the State, which are designated as training schools and city 
normal courses. 

The State grants a subsidy to all normal schools that are founded by 
the communes; they must, however, meet the requirements of the 
State institutions. A i^ractice school (leerschool) is connected with 
each normal school, in which the students practice teachiug. 

The directors and teachers of normal schools are ai^pointed by the 
King, and such schools have a four-years course with four classes. In 
each class there are about 20 students. 

In normal schools for young men, which are day schools, students 
may live at the homes of j)rivate families in the vicinity, while normal 
institutes for young women are generally boarding schools, in all of 
which the scholastic year commences on the first Monday in September. 
Holidays of eight days at Easter and ten at Christmas are given, as 
well as a six- weeks vacation x)receding the first Monday in Seiitember. 

Candidates desiring admission to a normal school must pass an exami- 
nation before the director and teachers in accordance with a programme 
arranged by them and approved by the minister of the iuterior. This 
programme is published every January in the Nederlandsch Staats- 
courant. Candidates obtaining the highest marks are admitted. They 
must have attended ordinary elementary schools and preparatory classes 
for normal courses before they can be admitted to the regular course 
of a normal institute. Teachers must require all students to attend 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



503 



religious instruction, wliicli is given at stated hours, and also their 
churches. Books and school material are furnished free of cost. 

The programme of every normal school includes: (1) Eeading; (2) 
writing,- (3) arithmetic; (4) composition; (5) the Dutch language; (6) 
general and natural history; (7) geography; (8) natural sciences; (9) 
singing; (10) violin and piano; (11) principles of the French, German, 
and English languages; (12) mathematics; (13) pencil drawing; (14) 
gymnastics; (15) agriculture; (16) theory of teaching and pedagogy. 

The minister of the interior can temporarily dispense with subjects 
11 to 15. 

I. STATE TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS (MEN). (RIJKSKWEEK- 
SCnOLEN VOOR ONDERAYIJZERS.) 

On September 1, 1893, there were 4GS students enrolled in 6 train- 
ing schools maintained by the Government. Of 130 students in the 
higher class, 78 obtained diplomas at the final examinations held in 
1894. The practice schools which are connected with the training 
schools numbered 1,GG1 students. These practice schools are regular 
primary schools supported by the State (Government), and they employ 
about 58 teachers. Sixty-nine teachers were employed in the normal 
schools, besides 8 gymnastic teachers. 

The following table shows the distribution of students, pupils, and 
teachers in the above-mentioned schools, 1893-94: 





K^ormal schools. 


Practice schools. 




students. 


Teachers. 


PnpU.s. 


Teachers. 




84 


11 


240 


7 


Nijinciien 




06 

72 
78 
68 
70 


13 
12 
10 
11 
12 


239 
309 
293 
280 
300 


8 
10 
10 
10 
13 








Mn nstriirl't, 




Total 


468 


69 


1,661 


58 





The above table does not include the gymnastic teachers. Eighty-one 
persons made api)lication for admission to the new normal school in 
Nijmegen for tbe course beginning in January, 1894. Sixty-five stu- 
dents attended the courses of gymnastics for teachers of gymnastics 
at Haarlem, Deventer, Groningen, and Maastricht. 

The programme of the State normal schools includes : (1) The Hol- 
landish language, reading, grammar, orthography, and literature; (2) 
writing; (3) natural and general history; (4) mathematical, physical, and 
economical geography and drawing of charts; (5) arithmetic; (6) com- 
position; (7) natural sciences (historj'^, physics, and chemistry); (8) 
singiug and harmony; (9) pedagogics (education and instruction); (10) 
drawing; (11) mathematics (algebra and geometry); (12) modern lan- 
guages; (13) horticulture and agriculture; (14) anatomy; (15) physiol- 
ogy and hygiene, and (IG) gymnastics. 



604 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

Expenditures for State normal schools and practice schools. 



1893-94. 



1889-90. 



Teachers' salaries 

For students 

Material 

Total 

Decrease in four years 



$71, 877 
50, 996 
16, 988 



139, 861 
156, 083 



$78, 887 
57, 941 
19, 255 

156, 083 



16, 222 



II. NORMAL COURSES SUSTAINED BY THE STATE (RIJKSNORMAAL- 

LESSEN). 

At the close of 1893 there were 43 State normal courses in operation 
of Class A and 53 of Class B. These courses extend over four years 
and include four progressive classes. 

The programme of normal course B includes the Dutch language, 
reading and writing, national history, geography, arithmetic, geometry, 
natural history, singing, pedagogy, and useful handiwork for girls, 
besides manual training for boys. The programme of normal course A 
includes the same subjects and in addition thereto general history, 
pencil drawing, mathematics, gymnastics, and one of the modern 
languages. 

Candidates who have successfully completed the course of primary 
instruction are admitted to the preparatory class up to 14 years of 
age; those over 14 can enter the normal course. 

A director is at the head of each of these institutions, which are con- 
nected with practice schools. The scholastic year commences April 1, 
and closes March 31, the holidays and vacations during the year not 
exceeding six weeks in all. The annual school programme is arranged 
each January at a meeting of the teachers and the director. 

Three thousand and twenty-seven students, 1,480 male and 1,547 
fema^le, attended these courses in 1893-94. Several city normal courses 
had been suspended in 1889 on account of a decrease in attendance; 
2,698 students, 1,481 male and 1,217 female. 

III. TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS SUPPORTED BY COMMUNES 

(aEMEENTELIJKE KWEEKSCHOLEN). 

There are three institutions of this kind: 

(1) The training school in Amsterdam is coeducational, and has two 
parallel divisions. Division 1 is for the training of those who asjjire 
to the rank of a teacher; division 2 is for teachers aspiring to the rank 
of head teacher, or for persons who study special branches. All stu- 
dents of the highest grade (class 4) took part in the final examination. 
The course of division 1 embraces four years and is attended by pupils 
from 14 to 18 years of age, the first two years being devoted to theo- 
retical instruction; the last two to theoretical and practical training. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 505 

Practical training- is acquired in tlie practice scliool of tlie normal 
school, or ill public or private schools of Amsterdam, this conforming 
to regulations of article 8 of the law. Instruction and school material 
are provided free of cost. Male students who distinguish themselves 
can obtain a scholarship of $30 x^er annum. There were 25 students, 
12 men and 13 women, who passed successful examinations, besides 2 
women who were not admitted the year before. 

One hundred and fifty four students attended the school in the be- 
ginning of the year and 12 additional students entered during the run 
of the year. The number of teachers in the normal and practice school, 
inclusive, was about 25. In 1889 there were 133 students in attend- 
ance. These schools are under the jurisdiction of the school super- 
intendent and local commission of primary instruction. 

(2) The training scliool for teachers {coeducational) in Ley den. — At the 
end of the year 1893-94 this school numbered 28 head teachers, 8 
female head teachers, 54 male and 32 female teachers, 9 female teachers 
with certificates conforming to article 5Ca, 89 normal pupils, 31 aspirant 
normal pupils, and 20 other students who studied special branches. 
Students under 15 are not admitted, and aspirants for the lowest grade 
must have attained the age of 13 years. ISTone can enter without a pre- 
liminary examination. The course is completed in six years. Peda- 
gogics and violin or piano instruction belong to the course of study. 

Twent3'-two normal pui^ils were admitted to the final examination 
coming under article 5Ga of the law on j)rimary instruction, and 18 
passed successfully; and 11 out of 13 j)assed at a later examination. 
Eleven teachers, 10 male and 1 female, obtained the diploma coming 
under article 56b of the law ; 3 men and 1 woman in the French lan- 
guage; 1" woman in German; 4 women in English. There were about 
25 teachers employed. A practice school is connected with the training 
school. 

(3) Training school for female teachers in Oroningen. — This was 
founded by the Society of Public Good (1816), and has since 1882 been 
supported by the commune. The school opens May 1, and closes April 
30 each year. The burgomaster and aldei'men are the superintendents ; 
a special commission of supervision is appointed by the local council, 
by whom are also appointed the directress and the other teachers. 
The annual fee amounts to $20 each. Students from other communes 
are accommodated by private families at a cost of $160 per annum for 
board and room. 

The course for 1893 opened on May 1 with 54 students and about 17 
teachers, including 7 teachers in the primary department of the insti- 
tution. Five of these students who attended the fourth class (highest) 
passed a successful examination at the end of the year and obtained 
teachers' certificates. These three schools received from the Govern- 
ment a total of $15,692, or, respectively, $9,648, $2,122, $3,922. 



506 



EI>UCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



IV. PRIVATE NORMAL, SCHOOLS AND COURSES FOR MEN AND VfOMEN 
(INRICHTINGEN VAN BIJZONDEREN AARD, TER OPLEIDINO VAN 
ONDERWIJZERS AND ONDERWIJZERESSEN). 

The following private normal schools, out of a total of 57 in the coun- 
try, received subsidies from the Government in 1893 : 

Traiiiiug school for female teachers in Arnhein 

Christian normal school for female teachers in Zetten 

Christian normal school in Nijmegen 

Groen van Prinsterer school in Doetinchem 

Christian normal school in Tho Hagno 

Normal training school of the Reformed. Church for male and female teach- 
ers in Amsterdam 

Training school for female teachers in Haarlem 

Roman Catholic training school in Eijeden 

Roman Catholic training school in Echt 



$4, 215 
2,295 
2,170 
1,897 
2,283 

2,372 
3,522 
1,938 
1,873 



Total 22,565 

The following numbers of students were enrolled in the above-men- 
tioned normal schools: 714 males and 1,151 females j of these, G7 and 
126, respectively, obtained teachers' certificates. 

The normal courses, 89 in number, had an attendance of 689 male 
students and 896 female students; 266 persons took private lessons 
from 95 of the principals of normal schools, 137 men and 129 women. 

Beviexo of State normal courses, training schools supported hi/ communes, and of private 
institutions for the training of teachers, showing on Decemier 31, 1893, an enrollment of 
4,946 students. 



State normal courses : 

Students 

Di]>lomas obtained 

!N"ornial courses supported by comnimies : 

Students 

Diijlomas obtained 

Private institutions : 

Students 

Diplomas obtained 



2,098 male students. 



1893. 



1,277 
171 



107 
19 



1,279 
313 



115 
37 



382 

72 



Diiierence 

in 
four years. 



- 2 
-142 



4 332 
— 5 



2,818 female students. 



1,326 
181 



371 
11 



1,151 
126 



1,011 

202 



275 
65 



488 
84 



Difference 

in 
four vcars. 



-315 
- 21 



+ 96 
— 24 



+ 663 
+ 42 



Eevieiv of the numher of normal schools and institutions, and number of pupils enrolled, 
at beginning of the school year 1893-94. 



Schools. 



Pupils. 



State training scliools 

State normal courses 

Communal training schools 

Private normal schools 

Private normal courses 

Head teachers giving private instruction 
Courses for head teachers 

Total 1893-94 

Total 1889-90 



7 


468 


96 


3,027 


3 


443 


57 


1,805 


89 


1,585 


95 


266 


26 


834 


373 


8,54S 


189 


4,556 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



507 



The number of head teachers giving private iustniction to aspirant 
teachers was not given in the annual report for 1889-90, nor the num- 
ber of priva,te normal courses. 

V. COURSES FOB THE TRAINING OF HEAD TEACHERS. 

In 1893 there was a total of 2G institutions of this kind in 25 cities 
(2 in Leeuwarden). The enrollment was 671 male and 223 female 
students, or a total of 8915 175 students, 143 male and 32 female, 
obtained the diploma of head teacher. 

In 1889 there were only 22 of these institutions, with 78G students in 
attendance. 

Expenditures for iltc training of teachers. 





1893-94. 


1889-90. 


State normal schools 


$139, 866 

160, 308 

54, 881 

Gi, 327 


$156, 085 

185, 060 

19, 722 

71,024 










Total 


419, 382 
432, 491 


432, 491 




Decrease in four years 


13, 109 









Three hundred and fifty-five thousand and fifty-five dollars of the 
total expenditure for 1893 and $361,467 for 1889 were provided for by 
the General Government, while $64,327 for 1893 and $71,024 for 1889 
were paid out of the communal treasury. 

SECONDARY INSTRUCTION (MIDDELBAAR ONDERWIJS). 

There were in 1890 two inspectors of secondary instruction: Dr. 
W. B. J. van Eyk, The Hague (1886), for the provinces of North Brabant, 
Gelderland, Zealand, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Limburgj Dr. A. T. van 
Aken, The Hague (1883), for South Holland, jS^orth Holland, Frieslaud, 
Groningeu, and Drenthe; F. B. Lohnis (1892) having charge of the 
agricultural schools. 

Secondary instruction is based upon the law of May 2, 1863, amended 
by the laws of June 28, 1876, and April 25, 1879. 

Until the enactment of the law of 1857 the burgher schools, which 
corresponded to German "Realschulen," had been classed as primary 
only. It was then found necessary to establish intermediate schools, 
which are a grade between primary and higher schools. The law of 
1863 classed the burgher schools, higher burgher schools, agricultural 
schools, polytechnicai schools, and all industrial schools under second- 
ary instruction. 

Schools of secondary instruction are either public or private, the 
public being those established and maintained by communes, provinces, 
and the State, separately or conjointly, and all others are private. Pri- 



508 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

vate secondary or middle schools may, liowever, receive subsidies from 
communes, provinces, or tlie State. 

Secondary tuition given to cliildren of not more tlian tliree families is 
considered home instruction. Secondary instruction is gratuitous, but 
the highest fee in communal schools is $5 per annum, and in higher 
burgher schools, supported by the State, it is $25 per annum. 

Officials having charge of secondary instruction. — The minister of the 
interior is the supreme authority, and invests the local commissions, 
who are elected by the local council, with the supervision of the various 
institutions. In 1893 there were 8 commissions, consisting of 97 mem- 
bers, in charge of examining such persons as desired to obtain a 
diploma of secondary teacher. Each commission has a president. 
The 3 inspectors of secondary instruction are nominated by the King; 
one of them having special superintendence of the State agricultural 
school. For the manual-labor training schools there are several ladies 
appointed on the board of commissioners. The directors of the higher 
burgher schools are in charge of the general supervision of everything 
jtertaiiiing to these schools. 

Teachers. — Only persons holding a diploma of recognized universi- 
ties and secondary training schools, and a certificate of good moral 
standing, as required by law, are allowed to impart secondary instruc- 
tion. From this rule are exempted (1) i^ersons who instruct children 
of one family only ; (2) those who do not make teaching their profes- 
sion, but have obtained a concession from the King to teach without 
remuneration. 

In the higher burgher schools only male teachers are employed. 

The head teacher has the title of director, and all teachers are nomi- 
nated by the King. The director regulates the programme in con- 
junction with the teachers. Directors and teachers must obtain a 
permit from the minister of the interior before accepting a position at 
any public or private institution, or for giving private lessons. For- 
eigners must aj)ply to the King for concessions. 

Directors and teachers of higher burgher schools supported by tlie 
communes are appointed by a local council from a list of candidates 
recommended by local authorities. 

Pensions arc regulated by articles 31 to 35 of the law. Teachers are 
considered as Government officials and are all entitled to a pension 
from the State, and in determining the amount of i)ension the length 
of time spent in the public service is taken into consideration. The 
directors and teachers contribute annually to the general pension fund, 
and the communes refund to the Government one-half of the sum spent 
in pensions. The regulations governing the pensions of primary teach- 
ers agree in the principal points with those governing the pensions of 
secondary instructors. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 509 



I. BURGHER DAY AND EVENING- SCHOOLS, AND INSTITUTIONS CLASSED 
WITH THEM ACCORDING TO ARTICLE 14 OF THE LAW. 

They are classified as follows : 

1. Burgher clay and evening schools. 

2. Apprentice schools. 

3. Trade schools. 

4:. Drawing and industrial schools. 

5. The Academy of Liberal Arts in Rotterdam. 

6. Private burgher day and evening schools. 

Most of these schools are evening schools. They were established 
priTicii^ally for the purpose of training artisans, mechanics, and agri- 
culturists. In each community of 10,000 inhabitants or more at least 
one burgher day and evening school must be established by the com- 
munal authority. The King can suspend this regulation where the 
inhabitants of a community live so far apart that it would be incon- 
venient for the pupils to attend such a school, or if other provisions 
have been made to fulfill the requirements. School fees may be col- 
lected, but not to exceed $5 per annum. A total of 39 institutions of 
tbis kind are in operation in the larger cities: 

{(() Thirty-two of class 1 are evening schools; the school at Leeu- 
warden is the only day school of tbis kind. There is only one school 
of class li. These schools together had a total of 3,593 pupils enrolled 
in December, 1893. 

Thirteen hundred and seventy-six candidates were examined for 
admission to the schools at the beginning of the course. Of these 
1,001 passed and 375 failed. At the final examination there were 285 
pupils examined, of whom 237 passed and 18 failed. 

Two hundred and ninety-two teachers were employed in the above 
schools. 

(h) There were (> schools of classes 3 to 6 in operation : The trade 
school in The Hague, the Academy of Liberal Arts, the trade school 
in Eotterdam, and the drawing school in Delfshaven (Rotterdam), the 
private burgher evening school in Leyden, and the industrial school in 
Helder, with an attendance of 1,563 pupils; teachers, 127. 

Three hundred and thirty-two candidates were examined for admis- 
sion at the beginning of the course, of which number 104 failed to pass; 
228 were admitted. At the final examination 69 were successful and 
8 failed. 

One hundred and forty-seven teachers employed in schools of classes 
1 and 2, and 7 employed in the schools of classes 3 to 6, inclusive, 
taught in the higher burgher schools also. 

. The total sum expended for teachers' salaries was, in schools of classes 
1 and 2, $49,089; classes 3 to 6, inclusive, $30,116; total, 1893-94, 
$79,205: 1889-90, $70,429; increase in four years, $8,776. 



510 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 



General totals. 



Tear. 


Schools. 


Pupils. 


Teacliers. 


Expendi- 
tures lor 
salarie.s. 


1893 94 


40 
39 


5,156 
4,500 


419 .$79, 204 


1889 90 


405 70, 42D 








1 


056 


14 8. 775 









II. INDUSTRIAL AND DRAWING SCHOOLS, PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS, ETC. 

There were 27 public, 19 subsidized private, and 5 nonsubsidized 
private institutions of the first and second classes, and 20 of the latter; 
of these 17 were subsidized. They embrace day and evening schools. 



Tear. 


Schools. 


e3ld.'^-c^-. 


1893 94 . .. 


71 


8 s?;s 1^1 a 


1889 90 


61 5 526 1 353 








10 


2, 832 1 160 







The institution called ''Colony Nederlandsch Mettray" was founded 
in 1-851 by Willeni Hendrik Suriuger for needy and neglected children 
of the Protestant church. After having finished the regular course the 
pupils are trained in agricultural or industrial pursuits, etc. Only pupils 
from 10 to 14 years of age are admitted. Many entertain the erroneous 
idea that "Mettraj^" is a reformatory colony, but anyone who visits it 
can easily recognize its object. The income of the institution is derived 
from gifts, annual contributions, interests from legacies, rents from farms, 
remuneration for work i)erformed in the workshops, etc., and from regis- 
tration fees. 

For a boy attending 1 of the 35 divisions a fee of |32 per annum 
must be paid; those attending all divisions pay $G0 and an entrance 
fee of $4. The colony is superintended by 7 commissioners and 4 inspect- 
ors, each of the latter living in 1 of the 4 family dwellings. Besides 
these there are head masters, 1 in each workshop, and 7 teachers. 

The programme of the foregoing schools includes the following studies : 
Mathematics, first principles of theoretical and applied mechanics and a 
thorough knowledge of instruments, physics and chemistry, natural 
history, technical knowledge of agriculture, rudiments of geography 
and history, Hollandish, fundamental knowledge of political economy, 
pencil and rectilinear drawing, and gymnastics. The local council may 
add to this programme the principles of technology, modeling, and one 
of the modern languages. 

The directors of the burgher schools are appointed by the local 
council from the list of applicants approved by the mayor and magis- 
trates, after having been examined by the inspector. The number of 
teachers and their salaries are fixed by the local council, and must be 
approved by the States- General. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 511 

The teacliers of industry are trained at the normal schools and State 
Academy of Liberal Arts in Amsterdam and at the Academy of Liberal 
Arts at The Hague. 

Directors and teachers of burgher schools, whose maintenance is 
imposed upon the communes, are pensioned by the Government. The 
community, however, refunds half of the sum to the State, which sum 
is added to the State budget. Other exx^enses for burgher schools must 
be met by the communes. 

III. HIGHER BURaHEE, SCHOOLS. 

These schools are i:)rincipally for the training of overseers, superin- 
tendents, and the commercial classes. They are divided into two 
grades, one comprising a course of five years and the other a course of 
three years. 

By virtue of the law there shall be not less than 12 higher State 
burgher schools in operation in the country, and in at least 5 of these 
the course must be five years. Anybody wishing to be admitted to such 
a school must pass an examination before the director and teachers, 
and pupils can not be promoted to higher classes without a previous 
public examination, but they may be transferred from a higher burgher 
school to another and be placed in tlie grade to which they belong, pro- 
vided they have a certificate from the director of the school which they 
hitherto attended. The courses commence on the first Monday in Sej)- 
tember, three school vacations being given during the year, from the 
middle of July to the beginning of the course, at Christmas, and at 
Easter, each of the last two lasting ten days. 

There are in all Gl higher burgher schools in existence; 20 are main- 
tained by the G-overnment, 28 by the communes receiving subsidies, 
12 are nousubsidized communal schools, and 1 a Eoman Catholic insti- 
tution. These were attended by 6,1G6 young men taking a full course 
and 243 students pursuing elective studies. Forty schools admitted 
young girls, and were attended by 282 taking a full course and 104 
pursuing elective studies. 

The young men were distributed in the different classes of schools 
as follows : One thousand three hundred and seventy-three regular, 
and 107, or 7.7 per cent, following elective courses, in the 20 higher 
State burgher schools. The other schools numbered 5,036 attendants, 
besides 136, or 2.7 per cent, taking elective studies. The courses of 
gymnastics were followed by only 4,989 of the total students. 

The final examinations of these institutions are regulated by articles 
55 and 57 of the law, May 2, 1863 (Stbl. Xo. 50), and March 10, 1883 
(Stbl. No. 31), and are conducted in the following manner: 

(1) The royal commission nominates a board of examiners before 
May 1 of each year, and the parish is informed of the place and time 
of examinations. 

(2) The law requires oral and written examinations. The la^tter 



512 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

comprise 10 branches and the former 5 diliereut groups of subjects; 
Mathematics aud mechanics ; phj^sics ; historical, commercial, and polit- 
ical sciences; modern languages aud literature; J^etheriand-Indian 
languages and pencil and rectilinear drawing; in all, 17 branches. 

(3) Tlie board of examiners is divided into subcoramissions, one for 
each subject, and each subcommissioner determines on the oral exam- 
ination in the special subject to which he has been assigned, or the 
written examination. 

(4) After the discussion aud prex^aration of the various exercises 
the conclusions are sent to the inspectors, who make selections from the 
proposed questions, which are then priuted at Government ex])ense 
with absolute secrecy, and the j)rinted forms are sealed up in packages 
and forwarded to the respective directors. 

(5) Written examinations take place on the same day in all cities,, 
and the results are forwarded to the president of the committee. 

(6) The oral examination may include all branches, but must embrace 
all those belonging to the written examinations. The commission deter- 
mines the length of time permitted each candidate for the different 
subjects, while the president regulates the time spent on the oral 
examination. 

(7) The answers to each of the 5 groups are rated by ligures, from 
1 to 10. 

About 300 candidates present themselves each year for the linal 
examinations. Making allowance for a moderate programme, live hours 
is allowed each candidate — two hours for mathematics and physics, one 
for history and geography-, and two for languages — or a total of fifteen 
hundred hours, or fifty days, for all examinations; but as some of the 
schools require two days, the real aggregate is seventy-two days. This 
calculation, of course, can only be considered approximate, since at 
many of these schools there are more than twelve candidates. The 
certificates are distributed gratuitously, but diplomas of final exami- 
nations at agricultural, technological, and engineering schools require a 
fee of $16. 

Examinations for teachers of secondary schools and tor liome instruct- 
ors are also held once a year, the mode of which is prescribed by the 
law. 

Of 2,318 pupils who presented themselves for admission to the lowest 
class, 1,092, or 72 per cent, passed the examination, and 656, or 27.94 
per cent, failed. 

Three hundred and fifty-five were examined for admission to a higher 
class, of which 179 passed, 72 entered a lower grade, and 101 failed. 
There were also 140 students who entered classes without previous 
examinations — 08 in 10 State and 72 in 19 communal higher burgher 
schools. 

Eight hundred and eight teachers were employed at the higher 
burgher schools (this leaving 4 vacancies), 175 having a doctor's degree, 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 513 

21 candidates (that is, young theologians wlio bad recently graduated), 
488 teachers having diplomas of secondary instruction, 35 witli pre- 
vious diplomas, 35 with certificates conforming to articles 82 and 89, 
6 to article 90, and 34 to article 83 ; 14 without certificates. Twenty- 
seven of these teachers were employed at more than one school, which 
reduces the number of teachers to 777. One hundred and forty-four 
teachers were employed at 11 higher State burgher schools with a five- 
years course, 81 at 9 higher State burgher schools with a three-years 
course, 565 at 40 higher burgher schools supported by the communes 
with three or five years courses. 

Higher burgher schools for boys have a laboratory with accommoda- 
tions for each student, who is supplied with all necessary appurtenances 
including a desk with drawers for materials. Here he learns the more 
important chemical combinations by practical experiments, instead of 
committing to memory only and learning merely the qualities of the 
principal elements. Schools of this kind are also furnished with exten- 
sive collections of specimens in natural history, besides special conven- 
iences for studying anatomy. 

The salaries of teachers of the higher State burgher schools ranged 
from $1,005 to $1,407 for directors, who in two instances are furnished 
with free residence, and from $402 to $1,000 and over for the remaining 
number of teachers. 

At the higher burgher schools supported by communes the sala- 
ries ranged from $964 to $2,200 for directors (free residence in five 
instances), though there were three cases where directors received less 
than $964. They ranged from $402 to $1,000 and above for the reg- 
ular teachers. The exi)enditures for salaries for higher State burgher 
schools amounted to about $158,237 and for the communal higher 
burgher schools to about $400,628, or a total of $558,865; in 1889, 
$506,756. 

Programmes of higher burgher schools. — The five-years course includes 
mathematics; principles of theoretical and applied mechanics; knowl- 
edge of instruments and technology; physics and its principal aijplica- 
tions; fundamental knowledge of mineralogy, geology, botany, and 
zoology; rudiments of cosmography; origin of communal, provincial^ 
and State constitutions of Holland; political economy and statistics, 
especially of the Netherlands and its colonies ; geography ; history ; Hol- 
landish, French, English, and German literature; Latin and Malayan 
languages; elementary knowledge of commerce, especially of merchan- 
dise and bookkeeping; penmanship; pencil and rectilinear drawing, 
and gymnastics. The three-years course includes mathematics ; first 
principles of physics and chemistry; principles of botany, zoology, 
and mineralogy ; bookkeeping; geography; history; Hollandish, French, 
and English languages; penmanship; pencil and rectilinear drawing, 
and gymnastics. 

The programmes for secondary schools for girls differ in some 
ED 95 17 



614 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



respects, but they include bookkeeping, mathematics, and chemistry, 
besides literature. In the secondary schools for both sexes much 
imi)ortance is attached to modern languages and literature. Eeading 
of classical authors as well as the literature of foreign countries is 
largely encouraged, and conversation in foreign languages during rec- 
reation hours is enforced upon young girls who attend these schools. 
The branches of natural sciences are assiduously cultivated. 

IV. SECONDARY (OR MIDDLE) SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS. 

These institutions are supported solely by the communes or private 
parties. There were in all 12 in operation in 1893, one of which was 
private. The school fees for a complete course are $20 to $40 per annum ; 
for elective studies from $4 to $24 per annum for each subject. These 
courses cover three or five years, and each school has 5 classes. In 40 
schools girls have been admitted to the classes of the higher schools for 
young men. In every iustance the young men show the greatest defer- 
ence for their girl fellow-students. Nothing detrimental to the cause 
of coeducation has been noticed in these schools. 

Tiie following table shows the places where these schools are located, 
and the number of pupils : 

Secondary (or middle) schools for girls. 







Pupils attending 


complete 


courses. 




Pupils 

for 
elective 
studies. 


General 
total. 


Cities. 


"First 
class. 


Second 

class. 


Third 
class. 


Fourth 
class. 


Fifth 
class. 


Total. 




27 
35 
36 
25 
27 


12 
41 
45 
19 
30 


10 
26 
38 
13 
13 
40 
10 
40 
31 
17 
12 
33 


8 
19 
26 
16 
10 
32 
14 
24 
12 
15 

7 
21 


8 
10 
24 
10 

8 
22 

7 
27 
19 

9 

9 
14 


65 

131 

169 

83 

88 

94 

58 

173 

159 

132 

28 

169 


6 
3 


71 


The Hague 


134 




169 




6 

1 


88 




99 




100 


Amsterdam (private) 


13 
32 
51 
54 


14 

50 
46 
37 


59 
173 


Utrecht 




159 




2 

5 

16 


134 




33 




56 


45 


185 






Totall893 94 


356 
332 


339 
348 


283 
268 


204 
211 


167 
140 


1,349 
1,299 


55 
67 


1 404 


Total 1889-90 


1 366 






Increase in four years 


1 


1 








38 


1 


1 











Gymnastics are taught in all these institutions except in the pub- 
lic secondary schools in Amsterdam and Dortrecht; 939 pupils of 
those taking a complete course attended the courses of gymnastics. 

Examinations. — Three hundred and fifteen young girls made applica- 
tion for admission to the lowest class in these schools; 273, or 86.5 per 
cent, passed a satisfactory examination, and 42, or 13.5 per cent, failed. 
This result was less favorable than in the preceding year, 91 j)er cent 
being admitted. Of 30 examined for a higher grade, 2G were promoted, 
2 entered a lower grade, and 8 failed. At the transition examination 
from the courses of 1892 to 1893, 889 pupils were successful and 166 
could not be promoted. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 515 

Oue liundred and twenty-five female teacliers were employed in these 
schools, 113 of whom held diplomas of secondary instruction, 4 diplo- 
mas as head teachers, and 8 had no certificates. There were, moreover, 
27 male teachers, 20 of these having doctors' dii)lomas or the title of 
"candidate," 11 with diplomas of secondary instruction, 2 had no cer- 
tificates, and 1 a certificate conforming to article 82. The teachers 
without diplomas were employed for singing and needlework. 

The annual remuneration of the directresses ranged from $964 to 
$1,286, and in Eotterdam, Dortrecht, Utrecht, and Deventer they are 
entitled to free residence. The salaries of the teachers, male and 
female, ranged from $420 to $630 per annum, and the total spent in 
salaries for directresses was $12,422, and for teachers $71,176. In 1889 
these sums amounted to $12,381 and $66,179. 

V. AGRICULTURAL, SCHOOLS. 

The State agricultural school at Wageningen is the largest and best 
known, and has a higher burgher school connected with it. The attend- 
ance in 1893 was as follows: 66-f 1 students in the higher burgher 
school division; 62+1 students in Division A of agricultural school, 
41+1 students in Division B, and 22 students in Division 0. 

This gives a total of 191 regular attendants, and 3 hearers — that is, 
X>ersons who come to listen to the lectures without paying fees. The 
two latter divisions have been established especially for higher scien- 
tific training in agriculture; each division has several classes. The 
students ranged from 12 to 18 years of age and above. An experiment 
station is also connected with the State agricultural school, at which 
numerous agricultural researches were made by the students. The 
examinations were very satisfactory. Fifty-two students in the higher 
burgher school division were promoted to higher classes at the begin- 
ning of the course of 1893; 42 out of 47 in Division A, and 21 out of 26 
in Division B, and 12 out of 16 in the highest class obtained diplomas. 
Six in Division C were promoted to the highest class and 6 others 
were granted diplomas. About 29 teachers were emi)loyed. Enroll- 
ment in 1889, 123 students and 4 hearers. 

In the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten Landbonwschool, at Willemsoord, 
opened in October, 1890, the number of students must not exceed 20. 
They are to be trained for two years theoretically, and also practically 
on the farms of the Society for Public Good. 

Only 7 pupils attended in 1893, under 4 teachers. 

There are, moreover, 2 horticultural schools, the "Tuinbouwschool," 
of Amsterdam, and the "Gerard Adriaan van Swieten Tuinbouw- 
school," of Fredericksoord, opened in 1884, with an attendance of 27 
and 40 pupils. Thirteen teachers were employed. The age for admis- 
sion IS 15 years, and school fees are $24, $34, or $40 per annum. The 
total of students in 1889 was 45. 

In the School of Forestry, "Gerard Adriaan van Swieten Bosch- 



51 G EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

bouwschool," opened in 1888, 7 pupils followed the course in 1893, under 
4 teacliers. Boys supported by the Society of Public Good receive not 
only gratuitous instruction in the school of Fredericksoord, but also 
free board. This school receives a state subsidy of $250; 10 students 
and 4 teachers in 1889. 

Besides the above-mentioned agricultural and horticultural schools, 
there are other similar institutions in the country, and winter courses 
have been established in various cities, to which the Government extends 
subsidies. In the official report of Holland for 1893-94 we find 36 sums 
itemized, representing State subsidies for as many winter courses and 
agricultural schools. 

Establishments with courses in dairy farming are maintained by 4 
private associations in Oudshoorn, Bolsward, Friesland, and Geldern, 
and the Government in 1889 granted subsidies of $1,206, $1,608, $402, 
and $482, respectively, for their maintenance. These courses were 
attended by about 293 pupils, and 12 teachers were employed. There 
is no record for 1893. 

The accompanying programme will suffice to show the relative value 
placed in the agricultural schools on the several branches of study pur- 
sued: Political economy, practical mathematics (surveying, leveling, 
mensuration, etc.), mechanical science as applied to agriculture and the 
use of agricultural machines; the construction and arrangement of farm 
buildings; rectilinear drawing as applied to agricultural science and 
machinery; natural philosophy; chemistry and meteorology in their 
application to agriculture, general and special botany, and zoology; the 
anatomy and physiology of plants and animals; the distinguishing 
characteristics of the different domestic animals, their diseases and 
medical treatment; general and special agriculture; vegetable and fruit 
gardening, and the cultivation of timber and fruit trees, etc. 

VI. THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL IN DELFT. 

This institution is intended for the training of (a) those following 
industrial pursuits, and for technologists requiring a higher grade of 
technical and theoretical knowledge than they could acquire in the 
higher burgher schools comprising a five years' course; (b) civil engi- 
neers, architects, and architectural engineers. 

Every student of the polytechnic school pays $80 in advance for the 
annual course, which entitles him to all the advantages of the school. 
Those taking elective studies pay only for the subjects chosen, at the 
rate of $4 per annum for each study, with one recitation per week. For 
four or more recitations per week the fee is $16 per annum for each 
study. 'No entrance fees are required, and the names of students are 
recorded at the beginning of each school year. The course commences 
on the first Monday in September. 

Head masters and teachers are appointed by the King, and the super- 
vision of the polytechnic school is in the hands of a director, who is 
likewise nominated by the King. He is assisted in his duties by a 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 517 

council consisting of the head masters of the school of which he is the 
president and from which the secretary is elected. The director, 
assisted by the council, arranges the course for the following year in 
May, and such programme as may be then prepared must be submitted 
to the minister of tlie interior for his approval. The director also has 
the general supervision over the museum and professional training 
departments presided over by the head master or teacher in charge of 
the various branches of instruction in the polytechnic school of the 
Kingdom. 

Most of the students who have taken the course of the i^olytechnic 
school in Delft and wish to go to the East Indies as Government officials 
prepare themselves for such positions by taking a two or three years 
course in the school at Leyden for the training of officials in the East 
Indian service, where they are taught the Java, Malay, and Boegine 
languages, etc. The East Indian languages, while they are taught at 
Delft, do not receive that siDerial attention that is given at Leyden, for 
the reason that a great proportion of the students at Delft take a sec- 
ond course of study at Leyden. The school in Leyden is not only open 
to officers in the civil service, but is free to all doctors, missionaries, 
etc., who are destined for service in the East Indies. To all others the 
tuition fee is $75, paid in advance. No entrance fees are required. 

The programme of the polytechnic school includes the higher algebra, 
spherical trigonometry, and analytical geometry; descriptive geometry 
and its applications, differential and integral calculus, surveying, level- 
ing, and surface measurements, theoretical mechanics, applied mechan- 
ics, machinery, mechanical technology, applications of natural science, 
applied, practical, and analytical chemistry, chemical technology, 
modern manufactures, mineralogy and geology, apjilied geology and 
the working of mines, metallurgy, hydraulics, road, railroad, and bridge 
building, civil architecture, shipbuilding, rectilinear drawing, instruc- 
tion in the use of tools, instruments, and the turning lathe; construc- 
tion of models, political economy, commercial law, laws relating to 
engineering, j)ublic works, mining, and all industrial works. 

Two hundred and forty-one students attended a complete course of 
engineering and technology, while 84 students pursued elective studies. 
There were consequently 325 students in attendance, besides two ladies 
attending lectures. The first-named students were all graduates from 
a higher burgher school, having a five years' course. Age of students 
from 19 to 23 years. 

The results of final examinations were as follows : Of 142 candidates 
applying for examination, 17 withdrew, 101 obtained diplomas, and 24 
failed. These examinations are regulated by articles 61 to 65 of the 
law. 

Opportunities are offered the students to make practical experiments 
with surveying and measuring instruments. The teaching corps con- 
sists of about 34 persons; 1 director, 14 professors, 9 teachers, 8 assist- 



518 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



ants, and 2 teacliers in modeling. Five amanuenses and 1 librarian axe 
attached to the teaching staff. 

One hundred and seventy-one new works were added to the library, 
besides various journals, and 2,100 books were loaned out during the 
year. 

IsTumerous new objects were presented, or i)urchased for the depart- 
ment of decorative architecture, the laboratories, the dei^artment of 
natural sciences, and others. 

VII. SCHOOLS OF NAVIGATION. 

Schools of navigation are presented in the accompanying table, with 
the number of teachers, students, and those receiving a certificate, and 
the salaries of teachers : 





Xame and class of schools. 


Teach- 
ers. 


Pupils. 






Communes. 


Decem- 
ber, 1893. 


During Eeceiv- 
the year ing a 
1893-94. diploma. 


^of^^^ Total 
rectors, salaries. 




Subsidized naval school .-. 

Public naval school 

Private, training school 

Subsidized private school 

of Seeman's Home. 
Subsidized private naval 

school. 

Public naval school 

do 


1 
11 
13 

8 

4 

1 
1 
4 

4 
10 

8 


50 
41 
82 
53 

17 

28 

9 

25 

24 
51 

71 


65 

73 

115 

107 

20 

49 
10 
60 

63 
98 

111 




$182 
1,206 


$482 
5,548 


Eottcrdam 


43 

14 
15 

1 

7 

1 

12 

27 
24 

35 


Do 


1,085 

643 

643 
523 
804 

724 
965 

643 


4 140 


Heklcr 


1,327 


Ter.scl'.elling 


613 
5''3 


Ilarlingen 

Schiermonnikoog . 
Groningen 

Delfzijl 


Subsidized private naval 

school. 

Public naval school 

Subsidized private school 

of Minerva Academy. 
Subsidized private naval 

school. 


1,709 

1,367 
2,967 

2,175 


Toral 1893-9, 
Total 18S9-9C 

Increase in i 


[ 


65 
39 


453 
276 


771 
443 


179 
108 


7,718 
5,827 


20, 882 
o9,772 







26 


177 


323 


71 


j 




I 



a The salaries for 1889 ■were not given in six instances. 



VIII. SCHOOLS FOR DEAF-MUTES AND BLIND. 

The Institution of Eotterdam numbered 145 pupils, of which 119 
received gratuitous instruction; 70 were partly cared for by the insti- 
tution, and only 7 pupils paid fees, ranging from $5 to $60; 17 teachers 
were employed, not including the director and adjunct director; 168 
l)uj)ils in 1889. 

Ill the Institution of Groningen there were 179 pupils, most of whom 
were entirely cared for by the institution and only a few paid tuition 
fees. The teachers numbered about 30; 173 luipils in 1889. 

The " St. Michiel's G-estel" enrolled 143 pupils, 83 boys and 67 girls. 
Most of these were entirely cared for by the institution. There were 8 
teachers. The girls are taught by the Sisters of Charity; 156 pupils in 
1889. 

The Institute for the Blind at Amsterdam enrolled 58 children, 39 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 519 

boys and 19 girls. Teacliers employed, about 17 in number, were under 
a director; Gl jDupils in 1889. 

A total number of 526 pupils were enrolled in tlie above-mentioned 
institutions; teachers employed, 76, including the directors. In 1889 
they numbered 558 pupils and 85 teachers. 

IX. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS AND 

INSTRUCTORS IN DRAWING AND MODELING. 

Twenty-four ladies and 27 gentlemen attended the course in pencil 
drawing in Division A, and 6 gentlemen the course in architectural and 
mechanical drawing in Division B. There were besides 7 visiting stu- 
dents (hospitants). The entire course embraces three years. Eleven 
of the students obtained diplomas at the final examination. The school 
employed 11 teachers. The practice school numbered 58 students, 6 
girls and 52 boys. The total expenditure was $8,369, or $5,776 for 
teachers' salaries and $2,593 for material. The income from tuition 
fees was $951, this leaving an excess of expenditure over income or 
$7,418, which was paid out of the Grovernment treasury. Seventy-one 
students in 1889, besides 38 in practice school. 

X. INSTRUCTION IN THE LANGUAGES, ETHNOLOGY, AND COUNTRIES 
OF THE NETHERLAND INDIES IN THE INSTITUTION OF DELFT. 

One hundred and forty-three students were attending this school. All 
of these were graduates from higher burgher schools with a five-years 
course, or from gymnasia with a six-years course. One was a grad- 
uate from the agricultural school in Wageningeu and one an officer on 
furlough from the East Indies. Twenty-one out of 46 candidates who 
l)assed the entrance examination of the school were rejected because 
their physique did not answer the requirements of the service in the 
Netherland Indies. In 1889 there were 73 students and 16 teachers. 

The i^rogramme of the course is regulated by the burgomaster and 
the aldermen. It includes : 



Malayan language 

Javanese language 

Soendan language 

Madoero language 

Balino language 

Makassa or Boegine language. 
Batak language 



Hours per -vreek. 


First 


Second 


year. 


year. 


3 


5 


4 


5 


2 


3 


2 


3 


2 


3 


2 


3 


2 


3 



Hours per week for ioth years. 

History of the Netlierlancl Indies 3 

Knowledge of the Netherland Indian countries and nations 4 

Religious services^ national laws, and customs of the Netherland Indies 4 

State constitution of the Netherland Indies 5 

Knowledge of law books of the Netherland Indies 2 



520 EDUCATION RET>ORT, 1894-95. 

There is a similar school in Leyden, and its programme includes very 
mucli the same subjects. No record for 1893. 

The libraries of both institutions have been considerably enlarged by 
the purchase of new books and by numerous books presented. 

Expenditures of the General Government for secondary instruction, 1S89-9G. 

Inspection $3, 348 

State agricultural school 36, 147 

Polyteclinic school 58, 999 

Higher State burgher schools 197, 729 

Subsidies for secondary schools maintained by communes 104, 752 

Indemnifications to the examining commissions at higher burgher schools . . 12, 577 
Indemnifications to the examining commissions for examinations procuring 

diplomas (article 65) 14, 078 

Subsidies to indnstrial and drawing schools and schools for deaf-mutes 35, 222 

Total 462,852 

Expenditures of the General Govei-nment for secondary instruction, 1893-94, 

Inspection $5, 282 

State agricultural school 32, 396 

Polytechnic school 114,622 

Higher State burgher schools. 192, 989 

Subsidies to communal higher burgher schools 93, 565 

Subsidies to professional schools 32,853 

Subsidies to agricultural and horticultural schools 12, 317 

Winter schools 2, 976 

Teachers of State agricultural schools 6, 318 

Experiment stations, etc. (State agricultural) 23, 206 

Subsidies to naval schools 12, 703 

Indemnification to examining commissions 32, 792 

Subsidies to schools of deaf-mutes, blind, and idiots 7, 356 

Subsidies to various educational institutions of the communes 11, 325 

Normal school for drawing teachers 8, 369 

Industrial schools 9, 298 

Total 598,467 

Total income from tuition fees, diplomas : 

1893-94 45,621 

1889-90 37,540 

Total expenditures : 

1893-94 598,467 

1889-90 462,852 

Excess of expenditures over income of schools, paid from the treasury of the 
General Government : 

1893-94 552,846 

1889-90 .,. 425,312 

Increase in four years 127,534 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 

Expenditures for secondary instruction hy the communes. 



521 



Higher burgher schools and burgher schools : 

Teachers' salaries 

Material 

Supervising commissions 

Subsidies to private schools , 

Total 

Increase in four years 

Total income from subsidies and school fees 

Total expenditures 

Excess of expenditures over income of schools, paid from the treasury 
of the communes 

Increase in four years 



$439, 740 

52, 860 

1,540 

4,462 



498, 602 
443, 929 



54, 673 



1889-90. 



$391, 739 

46, 271 

1,457 

4,462 

443, 929 



$180, 908 
498, 602 



317, 694 
282, 560 



$101, 309 
443, 929 



282, 560 



35, 134 



Further expenditures were made for (a) the communal institutes in 
Delft and Leyden for the Netherland-Indies; {b) secondary schools for 
girls ; (c) the commercial school at Amsterdam. 





1893-94. 


1889-90. 




$54, 034 
128, 435 


$42, 074 
117 738 








Excess of expenditures over income of the institutions, paid from 


74, 401 

75, 664 


75, 664 








1,263 









The expenditures for 1893 included $117,023 for teachers' salaries and 
$11,412 for material; for 1889, $108,215 for teachers' salaries and $9,523 
for material. 

The communal expenditures for drawing and industrial schools and 
a few other institutions placed under this category (navy and gymnas- 
tic schools) were as follows : 



Instruction of pupils and care of school buildings 

Material 

Supervising commissions 

Subsidies 

Total 

Increase in four years 

ED 95 17* 



$22, 903 

6,128 

132 

93, 230 



122, 393 
101, 282 



21, 111 



$16, 884 

3,773 

81 

81, 044 



101, 282 



522 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 
Income derived from subsidies and scliool fees. 



Goveriiment subsidies ■ 

From iii'oviuces 

School fees 

Total 

Increase in four years 

Total income from enumerated sources 

Total expenditures 

Excess of expenditures overincomeof schools, paid from the treasury 
of the communes 

Increase in four years 



1893-94. 



$8, 991 
2,808 
2,440 



14, 239 
8,499 



5,740 



1889-90. 



$4, 770 
2,341 
1,388 



8,499 



$14, 239 
122, 393 



108, 154 
92, 783 



15, 371 



$8, 499 
101, 282 



92, 783 



In consolidating the expenditures of the General Government, prov- 
inces, and communes for the above class of schools we obtain the 
following figures: 

Jiei'ietv of expenditures. 





Drawing and 
industrial schools. 


Schools for deaf- 
mutes. 


Total. 




1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1893-94. 


1880-90. 




$98, 736 

18, 446 

110, 594 


$47, 009 
15, 801 
94, 172 


$5, 628 
2,957 
2,231 


$4, 824 
2,319 
1, 638 


$104, 364 

21,403 

112, 825 


$51, 833 




18, 120 




95,810 








227, 774 


156, 982 


10,816 


8,782 


238, 590 
165, 764 


165, 764 






72, 826 










1 





The State granted pensions to seven teachers in 1894, amounting to 
$3,100 in all. 

XI. STATE TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR MID WIVES. 
[Regulated by the royal decree bf July 27, 1882.] 

There are two schools of this kind, {a) at Amsterdam, and {h) at 
Eotterdam. Thirty-fi^ve and 38 students were in attendance, of whom 
24 were graduated at the close of the year. The Government expendi- 
tures amounted to $5,927 and $10,2G2 respectively; in 1889 to $5,161 
and $10,034. Number of teachers employed, 8. Two hundred and 
forty-fi.ve patients were cared for during the year in these institutions. 

XII. THE STATE VETERINARY SCHOOL IN UTRECHT. 
[Regulated by the law of July 8, 1874.] 

This school was attended by 60 students; 25 were boarding and 
35 day scholars. The course comprises four years. The commission 
granted a diploma of veterinary doctor to 12 candidates; 21, or 75 per 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



523 



cent out of 28 students, atteudiug the first and second 'years' course of 
study, were promoted to a higher class, and 15, or 48.4 i)er cent of 31 
belonging to the third and fourth years' course of study, passed very 
successful transition examinations. 

The museums of anatomy, natural history, and pathology, the labora- 
tory, and various collections have been largely increased by new 
apparatus, instruments, models, etc. The library obtained 35 new 
works, besides 70 current periodicals and journals and works previously 
ordered. 

An obstetric clinic for animals and a blacksmith forge belonging to 
the institution greatly facilitate practical studies. 

The Government expenditures amounted to — 



Teachers and officials 

Snporiiitendence of buildin; 
Material 

Total 

Decrease iu four years 



$10, 787 

5, 045 

17,150 



32, 982 
34, 741 



1,759 



1889-90. 



$10, G53 
5,063 
19, 025 



34, 741 



The income of the veterinary school amounted to — 





1893-94. 


1889 


-90. 




$4, 272 
3,427 




$5, 160 
4, 438 








Total 


7,(599 
9,598 




9,598 








1,899 










7,699 
32, 982 




9,598 




34, 741 






Excess of expenditures over income paid out of the treasury of the 


25, 283 
25, 143 




25, 143 








140 









The Netherlands report a goodly number of army and navy schools: 

I. The higher military school opened a course in 1893-94 for lieuten- 
ants and lieutenant-quartermasters of the army. The course of military 
art was followed by 40 officers, and the course relating to the manage- 
ment of military affairs by 10 officers. The i)rogramme includes several 
East Indian languages. 

II. A course for officers of hygiene at the military hospital in Utrecht, 
attended by 1 graduate of the State University of Leyden, 2 military 
druggists, 1 '' military horse doctor," and 2 district veterinary physicians. 

III. (A) The Eoyal Military Academy at Breda, regulated bj^ the law 
of May 30, 1877 (Stbl. ISTo. 141), etc., and sanctioned by the royal decree 
of August 11, 1883 (Stbl. l^o. 128). The course comprises four years. 



524 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. 

The array school, having two divisions, is connected with the military- 
academy, and is intended for the superior training of the lieutenants 
who were educated at the academy. The second division of this school 
is in The Hague, and is connected with the intendance course. Twenty- 
six lieutenants took part in the final examination of the first division. 

The corps of cadets in the military academy numbered 254 students 
in the beginning of the school year; 176 were admitted to the exami- 
nations held in May, June, and July, 1894, and passed successfully. 
The teaching corps and ofdcials, September 1, 1893, consisted of 39 
military officers and 14 regular teachers. 

Division II of the army school has 8 military teachers and 10 regular 
teachers. 

(B) The artillery course in Delft is regulated by the royal decree of 
July 25, 1884 (No. 92), and of July 1, 1889 (No. 22). The course requires 
an attendance of three years. The number of volunteers was 20 on 
October 1, 1893. There were also 28 aspirant volunteers w^ho submitted 
to a preliminary examination. Ten teachers are occupied. 

(C) The military school of Haarlem, connected with a practical course, 
was attended by 49 infantry volunteers; 15 of these followed the pre- 
paratory practical course. There were 6 military teachers. 

(D) Head courses at Kampen for second '^grenadier" officers and 
light infantry. The attendance was 33 for home service, and 34 for 
the service in the East Indies in division 1. Division 2 embraces studies 
relating to military administration, with 16 and 12 students. Eleven 
military teachers and 3 regular teachers are in charge of the classes. 

The Eoyal Military Academy at Breda is open only to young men 
who have passed a satisfactory examination at some higher burgher 
school at the end of a five-years course of study. The annual tuition 
fee is about $150. The cadets in the Royal Military Academy can not 
enter the army, at home or abroad, before completing a four-years 
course of study in that institution. They enter the army as second 
lieutenants. 

The military schools in Haarlem and Kampen are oi)en to every boy 
above the age of 15 who is able to pass a primary examination. When 
these boys receive the rank of corporal in these schools they have the 
right to enter regiments in the home service or in the East Indies. 
Some of the students wait until they receive the rank of sergeant — 
some the rank of second lieutenant — before entering the regiments. 
These two institutions furnish tuition, board, and clothes, including 
uniforms, without cost to the student. 

IV. The institutions for the training of cadets and officers and non- 
commissioned officers include: 

(A) The school for cadets with a teaching corps of 12 officers of the 
army and 5 regular teachers, besides 1 captain and 4 lieutenants; 195 
aspirant cadets were examined for the course in 1893-94; 45 were phys- 
ically unfit for the service, and a total of 50 were admitted to the 
sc! ool with the rank of cadet. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 525 

(B) Courses for heavy armed and liglit infantry; (50 attending tlie 
first years' course, and 168 the second. 

y. (A) The pupil school at Nieuwersluis, with 173 boys enrolled in 
July, 18')o, 21 more entered during the year, while 91 left to join some 
company. These boys are children of soldiers, officers. Government 
officials. They are instructed by 4 teachers under the supervision of 
the director. 

(B) The instruction battalion, with 3 classes, followed by 391 volun- 
teers, October, 1893. In July, 1894, there were 499. 

(C) The artillery instruction company, with 3 classes and 211 volun- 
teers, on July 1, 1893. 

(D) Instruction battery, with 75 volunteers, among these 31 titulary 
corporals. 

VI. Domestic schools for the various corps of the army, attended by 
an average number of 4,118; 944 of these learned to read and write 
well or tolerably well, 640 to write, and 515 to read. 

All the above-named schools are intended for the training of young 
men as officers for the home service or the colonies; lieutenants of the 
artillery and engineering corps, superior officers, volunteers, lieutenjints 
of infantry, young cadets, titulary corporals, quartermasters, and ser- 
geants, etc. 

The naval schools include : 

(A) The Eoyal Institution of Marine at Willemsoord, with Divisions I 
and II, these comprising a four-years course. Ninety-three midshipmen 
students were enrolled. The result of the examinations for promotions 
was very favorable for the year. The age of the applicants for admis- 
sion must be 14 to 17 years. The entire tuition fee is $643 or .^482, 
according to grade. The aim of this institution is to train young men 
for officers in the navy. The corps of teachers consists of 8 naval o.lfi- 
cers and 8 regular teachers. One library and several laboratories 
belong to the school. 

(B) The training course for boys on board of the revenue cutter at 
Hellevoetsluis. The engineer apprentices numbered 18 in the upper 
division and 17 in the lower, October, 1893. Six teachers were engaged. 

(C) Training of pilot apprentices on board the revenue cutter at 
Amsterdam. Eleven in each division ; total, 22. 

(D) Training course for boys as boatswains on board the instruction 
corvette Nautilus, at -Hellevoetsluis, with 55 boatswain apprentices, 7 
sailors of the third class, and 1 lighterman (apprentices) in division 1, 
30 sailors of the third class and 47 lightermen (apprentices) in division 2. 

(E) Training course for boys on board of instruction ship Admiral 
van Wassenaer. The winter course, October, 1893, commenced with 
680 pupils. They are trained for second officers and inferior ranks in 
the navy. 

VII. Training course of military pharmacists .for the army of the 
East and West Indies. The course opened with 5 students. 



526 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



According to an investigation ordered bytlie departement van oorlog 
(war department), we find that the total body of men who were incor- 
porated in the laud militia of the Netherlands numbered, 1893, 11,016; 
1889, 10,735: 



Could read and •write 

Could only read 

Could ueither read nor write 



Number. Per cent, 



10, 289 
115 
612 



93.40 
1.04 
5.56 



1889-SO. 



Number. Per cent 



9,826 
137 

772 



91.53 
1.28 
7.19 



A similar investigation was ordered by the departement van marine 
(navy department) in regard to those incorporated in the sea militia. 
The results show that of 600 in both years mentioned above : 



Could read and 'write 

Could only read 

Could neither read nor write 



Number. Per cent 



578 

3 

19 



96.3 

.5 

3.3 



Number. Per cent, 



559 
14 

27 



93.1 
23.3 
45 



The lower courses of tlie above-named institutions include reading, 
writing, and the four fundamental rules of arithmetic, to read the time 
by the watch, rudiments of geography of the Netherlands, rudiments 
of national history regarding tbe marine and theoretical and practical 
instruction in the rudiments of the profession. 

The military schools embrace in their programme all subjects that 
are appropriate for the respective branches, the lower grades including 
primary subjects. 

Beview of the different classes of secondary schools — the number of pupils and teachers, in 

1SS9-90 and 1893-94. 



Burgher schools 

Industrial, drawing, and professional schools 

Higher burgher schools 

Middle schools for girls 

Agricultural schools 

Poly techuic school 

Schools for navigation : 

Schools for the tteaf-nnites and blind 

State normal school for drawing and modeling , 

Schools for the Netherlands-Indies 

Training schools for mid wives 

State veterinary school 

Higher military schools and courses 

Training courses for noncommissioned officers in the 
line 



Domestic schools for the various corps of the army 

Navy schools 

School for military pharmacists 

General total 

Increase in four years 



Teachers and pro- 
fessors. 



419 

513 

808 

152 

50 

34 

G5 

76 

11 

16 

8 

12 

103 

15 

228 
36 



2,546 
211 



1889-90. 



405 
353 
750 
158 

42-M2 

33 

39 

85 

11 

16 
7 

12 
105 . 

22 

267 
30 



2, 335 -f 12 



Pupils and students. 



1893-94. 1889-90. 



5,156 

8,358 

6,166 

1,404 

282 

325 

771 

526 

122 

143 

73 

60 

800 

583 

4,118 

070 

5 



29, 858 
2,667 



4,500 

5,526 

5,390 

1,366 

178 + 11293 

251 

443 

558 

109 

73 

68 

76 

959 

937 

5,733 

1,002 

12 



27, 191 -t- 293 



a Pupils in dairy-farming establishments ; no record for 1893. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



527 



Expenditures of fhe General Government for secondarij schools,, and the income derived 
from the same, since the x^romuUjation of the law of 1S63. 



Tear. 



1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 



Income 

from tuition 

fees, etc. 




$11,736 

14, 536 

15, 441 
21,115 
25,631 
30, 771 
29, 708 
32, 732 

35, 624 

36, 423 
3;, 959 
36, 003 
39,019 
40, 237 
40, 750 
38, 873 



Expendi- 
tures. 



$7, 
56, 
143, 
201, 
261, 
273, 
330, 
304, 
304, 
306, 
328, 
353, 
348, 
369, 
395, 
375, 
398, 



1880 

1881 

1882 

1883 

1S84 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

Total 



Income 

from tuition 

fees, etc. 



$37, 826 
37,062 
39, 226 
39, 668 
39, 443 
39, 873 
39, 678 
37, 818 

37, 405 
37,540 
38, 167 

38, 077 
41,006 
45, 621 



1,031,908 



Expendi- 
tures. 



$306, 859 
415,645 

421, 906 

422, 256 
424, 098 

424, 858 
410, 585 

425, 792 
428, 474 
427, 030 
429, 706 
440, 786 
521, 143 
562, 019 



10, 911, 935 



The above figures do not include the subsidies for drawing academies 
and schools, nor for the schools for the deaf-mutes and blind. The dif- 
ference between expenditures and income from tuition fees and diplo- 
mas, $9,879,972j was provided for out of the treasury of the General 
Government. 

The following figures show the expenditures by communes for liigher 
burgher schools and burgher schools, including the secondary schools 
for girls, etc., and of the income from these schools, from 1SG3 to 1893, 
inclusive: 



Year. 



1803 
18G4 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1808 
1809 
1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 



Income from 

school fees, 

diplomas, etc. 





$14,896 

43, 088 

71, 508 

83, 283 

91, 049 

104, 374 

120, 563 

128, 113 

142, 206 

145, 438 

150,085 

155, 754 

159, 337 

161, 974 

168, 532 

174, 314 



Expendi- 
tures. 





$82, 188 
245, 450 
235, 044 
265, 921 
282, 687 
271,700 
288, 537 
319, 242 
344, 629 
351, 066 
371, 624 
418, 788 
406, 285 
445, 454 
454, 686 
470, 432 



Tear. 



1880 

1881 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1891 

1802 

1893 

Total 



Income from 

school fees, 

diplomas, etc. 



$179, 295 
179, 338 
179, 764 
180, 553 
184, 914 
185,775 
188, 719 
195, 223 
197, 738 
203, 443 
212, 437 
219, 589 
229, 722 
234, 942 



Expendi- 
tures. 



$497, 145 
510, 385 
531, 0G8 
577, 536 
554, 288 
554, 056 
552, 985 

560, 141 
557, 454 

561, 667 
583,216 
594, 503 
612, 656 
627, 037 



4, 685, 966 



13, 128, 560 



The excess of the total expenditures over the income derived from 
fees, $8,442,594, was provided for out of the communal treasury. 

SUPEEIOR INSTRUCTION (HOOGER ONDERWIJS). 

The present system of higher instruction is based uj)on the law of 
April 28, 1876, amended and modified by laws of May 7, 1878; June 
28, 1881,- June 15, 1883, and July 23, 1885. 

Institutions of higher instruction are divided into public and private. 
Public, are those established and maintained by communes and the 



528 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1894-95. 

State, separately and conjointly. All otlier institutions are called pri- 
vate, or 'Hjijzondere," schools. Under article 192 of the fundamental 
law, any person may teach the higher branches, subject to supervision 
by the proper authority. 

Foreigners must obtain a permit from the King before they can be 
employed as teachers of the higher branches, in either public or private 
institutions. 

Public higher instruction is provided for and taught in three State 
universities'— in the gymnasia and progymnasia, and in the Communal 
University of Amsterdam. 

The "gymnasia" and Latin schools correspond to the German gym- 
nasium, while the courses given at the denominational "seminaria" 
and other superior institutions of this kind answer to the universities; 
but only the latter can confer academic degrees. 

STATE UNIVERSITIES. 

By the royal decree of February 17, 1890, the corps of officials at 
these universities was made to conform to the decrees of February 8, 
1889, and February 16, 1889. 

State University of Leyden (with 5 faculties). — The college of curators 
consists of 5 members. 

The senate is composed of 7 members, all being professors, namely, 
1 rector, 1 secretary and 4 assesors, 1 archivist. Each faculty has 1 
chairman and 1 secretary; in all, 10 members, with the title of professor. 

This university had 47 professors. In the faculty of theology, 5 ; of 
law, 8; of medicine, 9; of mathematics and natural sciences, 11; of 
letters and philosophy, 14. There were also 3 lecturers and 9 private 
tutors, or a total force of 59 teachers. 

State University of Utrecht (with 5 faculties). — The college of curators 
consists of 6 members. The senate is composed of 6 members, viz ; One 
rector, 1 secretary and 3 assessors, 1 archivist. 

Each faculty has 1 chairman and 1 secretary, all having the title of 
professor. 

The corps of teachers comprises 37 professors. In the faculty of 
theology, 4; of law, 6; of medicine, 10; of mathematics and natural 
sciences, 10; of letters and philosophy, 7. To this number must be 
added 4 lecturers and 9 private tutors (docents), which gives a general 
total of 50. 

State University of Groningen. — The college of curators consists of 6 
members. The senate is composed of 7 members; 1 rector, 1 secretary, 
and 5 assessors. 

Each faculty has 1 chairman and 1 secretary, all having the title of 
professor. 

The University of Groningen embraces the faculties of theology, 
law, medicine, mathematical and natural sciences, and of letters and 
philosophy. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



529 



The corps of professors comx^rises 35 members. For the faculty of 
theology, 4j of law, 4 5 of mediciue, 8j of mathematics aud natural sci- 
ences, 9; and of letters aud philosophy, 10. There were also lecturers 
and assistants, making a general total of 40. 

On reaching the age of 70, the professors in the universities are i>en- 
sioued. The amount of their i)ension is determined by the number of 
years they have taught, but can never exceed the sum of $1,206 per 
annum. The professors in the Catholic institutions are also j)ensioned 
by the Government, and their pensions equal the salary of a Catholic 
priest. 

If the professors fail to perform their duties in a satisfactory man- 
ner, the minister of the interior may suspend them for a period of five 
weeks. Serious misdemeanor might be punished by removal from 
office. 

The curators, through the secretaries of the faculties, make detailed 
reports to the minister of the interior on all subjects connected with 
the universities. They do not receive a permanent salary for the \)ev- 
formance of their duties, but are allowed by the Government $3 per 
day when they are actually engaged in the ijerformance of their duty 
(30. cents per hour when traveling and expenses incurred for board 
and lodging). 

The curators report, on November 1 of each year, to the minister of 
the interior, making an estimate of the expenses for the coming year; 
and in accordance with this statement the minister requests the sum 
needed, which is paid out of the State treasury from moneys derived 
from the general revenue taxes of the country. 



Students registered in State universities. 



University. 


For all studies. 


For single studies. 


General total. 


Increase 
in four 
years. 


1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1893-94. 


1889-90. 




770 
613 
453 


750 
547 
387 


23 
19 
30 


27 
35 
24 


793 
632 

483 


777 
582 
411 


+ 16 

+ 50 


Utrecht 




+ 72 




Total 


1,836 


1,684 


72 


86 


1,908 


1,770 


+ 138 





The annual tuition fees for a full course of study in the different 
faculties are $80, $76, $56, $44, $40; for single studies, $24, $18, $12, $6. 



530 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 
Students entered ivitliout X)ayment of tuition fees. 





Loyden. 


Utrecht. 


Groningen. 


Total. 


Reasons for exemption. 


1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1893-94. 


1889-90. 


Students -n-ho had already paid $320 
to tlio professors and lecturers. . . 

Students who under the rules of 
article lOG of the law had already 


190 

11 

80 
6 

7 


185 

5 

98 

6 

3 


171 

23 
3 
6 
4 

4 


124 

36 
2 
6 
3 

10 
2 
1 


166 

13 

20 

6 

2 


134 

8 
8 
6 

2 


527 

47 

103 

18 

13 

4 

1 

31 


443 
49 


Those admitted to promotions 

Those granted State scholarships.. 

Officials of the universities 

Druggists in the army, in conform- 
ity with regulations of royal 


108 
18 
8 

10 


By virtue of royal decree of May 
6 1 886 No 41 




1 
8 


1 

■ 


3 


6 


Article 66, 1st section of the law 


31 


9 






, 




Total 


325 


306 


211 


184 


208 


161 


744 


651 







a Students in a theological seminary of the Heformed Church are allowed, under the above-men- 
tioned conditions, to attend the lectures of their professors or lecturers at the university, 
tliemitted on account of death. 

The following table sliows distribution of students according to 
studies in 1893-94: 



• 


Theology. 


Law. 


Medicine. 


Mathe- 
matics 

and 
natural 
sciences. 


Letters 

and 
sciences. 


Total. 


Total in 
1889-90. 


Leydcn : 


64 
1 


240 
1 


347 


69 
3 
5 


50 
4 

7 


770 

9 

14 


750 




8 




2 


19 










Total 


65 


241 


349 


77 


61 


793 


777 






rtrecht : 


139 


72 


276 


89 
6 
11 


37 


613 
6 

13 


547 




24 








1 


i 


11 










Total 


a 139 


72 


277 


106 


38 


6 632 


582 






Groningen : 


52 


55 


235 


74 

2 

10 


37 
4 
6 

- 7 


453 
6 

17 

7 


387 




14 


1 lecture 


1 






10 
















1 




Total 


53 


55 


235 


86 


54 


483 


411 








257 


368 


861 


269 


153 


1,908 


1,770 







a This number includes 18 Germans and 1 Hungarian. 
Increase in four years, 138 students. 



t Including 16 ladies. 



The Government grants six beneficiary scholarshiiDS in each of the 
universities to young men who have distinguished themselves in their 
former studies, the university receiving from the State $320 for each 
student in annual installments for the complete course. These moneys 
are derived from ecclesiastical funds that are realized from aijcient 
estates which formerly — before the Eeformation in 1517 — were used for 
the installation of a Pope or bishop, but since the Reformation the Sov- 
ereign or Government has taken possession of these funds, which are 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



531 



DOW disbursed by iiouofficials or by committees under tlie direct super- 
vision of the State. 

Students who receive financial assistance from the Government are 
at liberty to select any of the courses of study allowed in the university. 

In order to present a correct idea of the studies i)nrsued in a Dutch 
university, the following table, presenting a series of lectures and les- 
sons for 1889-90, is given: 

Universiti/ of Leydcn. 



Lecture or lesson. 



Department of theology : 

Exegesis of the GUI Dispensa- 
tion anil liistory of Israelitish 
literature 

Ethics 

Historical facts on tlio church 
service of the Israelites 

Comparative liistory of reli- 
piotis services 

General history of religious 
services 

History of religious doctrines. 

Source' of tlie kuowledgo of the 
IJabylouian- Assyrian r o 1 i - 
gious services 

Oratory 

History of Christianity 

Hictory of theddgnaas of Chris- 
tian cii. '""h services 

Eesearch in cutn^^i cnrouicles 
and writings 

Ancient Cliristian literature . . . 

Interi)retation3 of the New Tes- 
tament 

Criticism of texts 

Pliilosopliy of the church serv- 
ice 

Philosophical history of ch nrch 
service 

Encyclopedia of theology 

Department of law: 

Dutch civil rights 

Commercial law 

±~"ivilego of suitors 

Puolic law 

International law 

Administrative law 

Dutch history of Dutch law 

Eights of colonists 

Civil rights in the Ketherlaud 
Indies 

Special subjects on Mohamme- 
dan rights 

Islam dogmas 

Commercial law 

Penalt ies 

Encyclopedia of laws 

Legal ])hilosophy 

Political economy 

Special branches of political 
economy 

Statistics 

History and origin of the 
Koman law 

Treatnu-nt of special jn'oblems 

for candidates 

Department of medicine: 

Anatomy of the human body.. 



11 

=5^ 






© IB 

So 


3 


25 


3 


20 


3 


15 


1 


15 


2 


25 


1 


16 


1 


2 


1 


25 


3 


22 


1 


26 


li 


7 


2 


20 


2 


30 


1 


12-20 


2 


29 


1 


29 


1 


24 


3 


35 


3 


35 


2 


30 


3 


40-50 


3 


6 


3 


6 


4 


1 


3 


13-17 


3 


9 


2 


10 


2 


10 


3 


30-60 


2 


30-60 


4 


25 


2 


4 


3 


20 


2 


8-16 


1 


8 


7 


30-40 


2 


10-14 


3 


80-90 



Lecture or lesson. 



Department of medicine — Cont'd. 

Topographical anatomy 

Experiments in anatomy 

Theoretical ophthalmology. 

Theoretical otology 

Ophthalmological and 
otological clinics and 

polyclinics 

Courses in eye examina- 
tions 

Medical clinic 

Pharmacology 

Pharmaceut ics 

Diagnostics 

Medical clinic 

Medical polyclinic 

General pathology 

Hygiene and medical practice.. 

Bacteriology 

Pract ical experiments iu pathol- 
ogy and bacteriology 

Chirurgical clinic 

Theoretical surgery 

Practical surgery 

Physiology 

Histology 

Practical experiments 

Do 

Do 

Gynecological obstetric clinic. 

Gynecological polyclinic 

Tiieoretical science of obstet- 
rics 

Theoretical gynecology 

Science of operations 

Practical exi)eriments of opera- 
tions 

Pathological anatomy , 

Practical pathological histol- 
ogy 

Dissecting 

Medical jurisprudence — 

For lawyers 

For physicians 

Department of mathematics and 
natural science-: 

General botany (morphology, 

anatomy, and physiology; 

Special botany (i)hotogra])hy 

and taxonomy) 

Practical experiments 

Clasaitication of plants 

Excursions for study 

Selected subjects 

Higher science of algebra 

Algebraic analysis 

Differential calculus 

Integral calculus 



e p 



"A 



2 
5 
1 
2 
3-4 
3 
3 
4 
1 
1 

4 

12 
2 
4 
4 
1 



3-6 
3-6 

2 
1 
1 

5 

2 

4 
4-5 

1 
1 



1 
4 

2-4 

(«) 



80-GO 
20-50 



40-100 
50 
40 
35 
120 
120 
56 
70 
30 

1-12 
100 
30 
160 
90 
80 
25 
25 
10 
50 
20 

30 

SO 
60 

15-20 
80-90 



a One-half day. 



532 



EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. 
Universittj of Leyden — Continued. 



Lecture or lesson. 



Department of mathematics and 
natural science — Continued. 

Problems 

Synthetic and descriptive ge- 
ometry 

Higher an.alytical geometry 

Theoretical mechanics 

Elementary astronomy 

Praet ical astronomy 

Theoretical astronomy 

Aatrognosy 

Ca'culatioiis of problems 

Inorganic chemistry for doctors 
and philosopliers - ■ 

Inorganic chemistry for phi- 
losophers only 

Principlesof inorganic chemis- 
try 

Theoretical chemistry for 
candidates 

Practical experiments for phi- 
losopliers 

Practical experimenta for phy- 
sicians 

Organic chemistry 

Practical exi)eriments for phy- 
sicians and students of phi- 
losophy 

Practical experiments for ad- 
vanced students 

Organic experiments for ad- 
vanced students 

Practical experiments in the 
pharmaceutic laboratory 

Comparative anatomy 

Zoology for students of medi- 
cine 

Special principal studies for 
candidates of botany and 
zoology 

Comparative embryology, with 
microscopic demonstrations. 

Practical experiments for 
students of medicine 

Practical experiments for 
candidates 

Geology 

Mineralogy and crystology 

Paleontology 

Practical exper ini ents 

Theoretic natural science 

Elementary physics 

Practical experiments in phys- 
ics for students of medicine. . 

Pitt'erential and integral calcu- 
lus for students of chemistry 

Elementary mechanics 

Demonstrations and practical 
experiments for beginners 

Practical experiments for ad- 
vanced students 

Selected studies for more ad- 
vanced students 

Department of letters and philos- 
ophy : 
Dutch language 

.Middle Dutch language 



m 
u 

S ^ 



(a) 



> 



A 



4 
5 
4 

70-80 

7 

25 

3-4 

12 

54-75 
60-70 

60-80 

1^ 

2-3 

9-10 
72 

72 
None. 



None. 

5 

1 

5 

12 



Lecture or lesson. 



Department of letters and philos- 
ophy — Continued. 

Practical exercises in composi- 
tion 

National history 

History of the Dutch Govern- 
ment 

First Sanscrit college 

Second Sanscrit college 

Comparative grammar of the 
ludo-Germanio language 

Zend-Avesta 

Indian science of archaeology. . . 

Russian 

Arabian : 

First year 

Second year 

Third year 

Fourth year 

Fifth year 

Logic 

Greek philosophy 

Psychology 

Tiieoretical philosophy 

Hebrew 

Jewish history 

Advanced Hebrew 

Do 

Modern Hebrew 

Javanese 

Madoere language 

Gothic 

Anglo-Saxon 

Old German 

Chinese language and litera- 
ture 

Latin language and literature.. 
Do 

Eoman antiquities 

General history 

Political geography. 

Historical studies 

Biograpliy of Dutch authors.. 

Of "the Middle ages 

Of tlie nineteenth century 

Authors of the nineteenth cen- 
tury 

Greek language and literature 

The same for more advanced 
students , 

Greek antiquities 

Physical geography of the 
Netherland Indies 

Ethnology of the Netherland 
Indies 

Soendane language 

Modern Persian for beginners . 

The same for* more advanced 
students 

Turkish 

Origin and introduction of Is- 
lam ism 

Javanese language and litera- 
ture 

General ethnography 

Malayan language 



a Unlimited. 
Each State university has its own archives and a large circulating library with reading rooms. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 
Promotions. 



533 



studies. 



Theology . 
Law 



Political economy 

Medicine .* 

Mathematics and physics 

Geography and orjctology 

Chemistry 

Botany and zoology 

Pharmaceutics 

Classical literature 

Dutch literature 

Knowledge of the languages and literature of the 
East India Archipelago 



Leiden. 



Utrecht. 



Gronin- 

gen. 



Total. 



1893-94. ; 1889-90. 



5 ■ 1 

71 83 

3 11 
15 18 

4 I 3 

1 

2 I 4 

2 ! 

1 

7 I 7 

7 ! 2 

1 I 



The library of the University of Leyden received during the year 1893 
200 new works, 1,056 copies of dissertations from France, and 3,311 
essays from German, Swiss, Norwegian, and other universities. In 
exchange, 1,540 dissertations of tlie university were sent out. There 
were presented from the different departments of the country 126 books 
and 30 charts; from private parties, 581 books; from corporations and 
colleges, 586. Other parties donated 256 books, 63 periodicals, etc. 
Thirteen thousand five hundred books and 55 manuscripts were loaned 
from the library. 

One thousand five hundred and forty-six patients were cared for in 
the hospital that is connected with the university; visitors in the poly- 
clinic numbered 10,154. 

The University of Leiden has, moreover, the following: Cabinet of 
medals and coins; anatomical cabinet; physical cabinet; chemical lab- 
oratory; inorganic specimen division; zootomic laboratory; hortus; 
historical laboratory; herbarium; museum of natural history; geologi- 
cal and mineralogical museum; physiological laboratory; pharmaceu- 
tical laboratory ; pathological anatomic laboratory ; ethnographic 
museum; observatory; museum of antiquities. 

The library of the University of Utrecht received an addition of 788 
new works, 307 by purchase, 243 by exchange, and 238 were i^resented, 
to say nothing of periodicals, journals, academic essays, etc. Nine 
thousand four hundred and eighty-seven books were loaned from this 
library during the year. 

Two thousand two hundred and forty-four patients were treated in 
the medical clinic and polyclinic of the hospital connected with the 
university. Four hundred and nine and 2,150 patients were treated in 
the surgical clinic and polyclinic, respectively; over 2,400 persons in 
the dental division; 83 and 255 were treated by Professor Halbertsma 
in the gynaecological clinic and polyclinic, respectively; and 131 and 
835 patients in the obstetric clinic and polyclinic, respectively. 

The University of Utrecht owns besides a pathological institute, 
institute of anatomy, physiological laboratory, hygienic institute, phys- 



534 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



ical laboratory, inuseiun of natural history, miueralogical and geolog- 
ical institute, niedical laboratory, i)liarmaceutical laboratoiy; botanic 
garden; obscrvutory. 

The additions to the library of the University of Groningen consisted 
of 4GG new works; 354 of these were purchased and 112 presented, 
besides pamphlets, dissertations, etc. Visitors numbered 7,702 persons, 
and 8,367 books were loaned during the year. 

The University of Groningen owns, moreover, a hospital, in which, on 
January 1, 1893, there were 112 patients under treatment, 9Go having 
entered during the year; a cabinet of anatomy; i)hysiological labora- 
tory; pharmacological and hygienic laboratory; cabinet for physics; 
botanic garden; museum of natural history; medical laboratory; miu- 
eralogical and geological laboratory; x)harmaceutical laboratory; collec- 
tion of astronomical instruments; collection of engravings; and a 
collection of mathematical models. 

University of Amsterdam, supported by the communes. By article 36, 
relating to suj^erior instruction, the community of Amsterdam obtained 
a concession elevating the "Athenneum Illustre" to a university. This 
was done October 15, 1887, and it has now the same privileges as the 
State universities. 

The college of curators consists of 2 members. 

Corps of professors. — The senate consists of 1 rector-magnificus, 1 
secretary, and 4 assessors. The professors of the faculties are distrib- 
uted as follows: Of law, 7; of medicine, 14; of mathematics and nat- 
ural sciences, 11; of letters and philosophy, 11; of theology, 6; public 
lecturers, 3 ; and private lecturers, 13. This gives a general total of 65. 

Students, 1S93-D4. 



Registered. 



Tuition 
lees. 



Income 
realized. 



For coiuplote course 

Total, 1S93-04 

Total, 1889-90 

Elect ivo studies 

Total, 1893-94 

Total, 1889-90 

General total, 1893-94 
tieuoral total, 1889-90 



533 
113 
416 



1,104 
641 



$80.4 

40.2 

None. 



$42, 8.^4 
4,543 



1,062 




47, 397 


fl008 




43. 094 


8 
24 

10 



12 
24 


48 
288 
240 


42 




576 


33 




421 









47, 974 
44, 515 



a Ten students received beneficiary scholarships from the commune. 

For examination fees 2:t6 students paid 64,915, and two students paid 
$1 ci.ch; total, $1,953. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 
Xumier of students to each faculty. 



535 



All lortiires: 

First course 

Secoud or advanced course. 



Total 

Elective studies . 



General total 

Increase in four years. 



Theol- 
ogy- 



113 
1 



Medicine. 



83 
542 



625 



Matji^e- Letters 
and r^^P""- 



3G 
116 



152 
19 



171 



73 



Total, 
1893-94. 



205 
857 



Total, 
1889-90. 



164 
444 



1,062 
42 



1,104 
641 



COS 
33 



641 



Tlic university received in 3889 a donation of $16,080 from Mr. 
Eudolph Lehman to build a lecture hall. 

Library. — The number of books has been largely increased. The 
central commission on statistics presented a collection of statistical 
works. A total of 3,787 ^yorks were entered in the accession book; 
the periodicals increased considerably also. 

Thirteen thousand eight hundred and thirty-four books were loaned 
and consulted, and 107 manuscripts were consulted and 36 loaned. 
The visitors numbered 25,369, the largest number per day being 170. 

The university has a pathological laboratory; hortus botanicus; geo- 
graphic-geological cabinet; laboratory and collection for the study of 
pathological dissections; hygienic laboratory; chemical-pharmaceu- 
tical laboratory; laboratory and collection of zoological specimens; 
physiological laboratory; laboratory for physics; laboratory for exper- 
imental lilant physiology; anatomic laboratory; museum "Urolik;" 
chirurgical museum; experimental chirurgical museums. 

From the Eevue Internationale de I'Enseignement, January, 1893, we 
learn that the medical studies in the universities of Holland will soon 
undergo a reform which the Government has had in contemi^lation for 
some time. Up to this date there have been four ways open to students 
desirous of qualifying for the medical i)rofession, though there is but 
one course by which they can attain the degree of doctor of medicine. 
All such as desire this honor must first graduate from a gymnasium, 
and must have taken the university course; all others passing State 
examinations only can obtain a diploma in medicine, but can not assume 
the title of doctor. Before passing the State examinations, however, 
students are required to be in possession of a diploma of efficiency 
from a middle school (hoogere burgherschool) with a five years course; 
a diploma of promotion to the fifth year of a gymnasium, or a dij)loma 
proving they have i^assed a satisfactory examination in literature and 
mathematics. 

From January 1, 1894, the two latter courses will be closed. Thus, 
after December, 1893, these examinations in medicine can not be taken 
unless the candidate has a diploma either from a gymnasium or from a 



536 



EIWCATION KEPORT, 1894-95. 



middle school certifying a five years course, but the conditions neces- 
sary for the degree of M. D. will remain as at present. 

The same law regulates the qualification of foreign students in medi- 
cine. They will hereafter be admitted to the practice of medicine in 
the Netherlands and its colonies after having proved the validity of 
their foreign diplomas by an examination passed in the Dutch lan- 
guage. This is required in order to ascertain whether they know 
Hollandish well enough to understand their patients. 

Gymnasia. — One of these institutions is in operation in each of the 
29 (30 in 1889) i^rincipal cities, and of these 25 received subsidies from 
the State. Gymnastics and Hebrew are not obligatory, and special fees 
from $12 to $40 are charged for these branches. These schools prepare 
for the universities. 

Total teachers, 431; 216 doctors, 49 candidates, 143 having teachers' 
diplomas of secondary instruction, 10 teachers with a diploma of supe- 
rior instruction, in conformity with the clause of the law, and 13 
teachers having a diploma of secondary instruction, in conformity with 
the clause of the law. There were 427 teachers employed in 1889. 

The salary of a rector ranged from $1,045 to $2,010. The lowest 
salary paid to a rector of a "gymnasia" was $1,045, but the incumbent 
had free residence. These teachers, however, draw an additional salary 
from burgher day or evening schools, higher burgher scLools, middle 
schools for girls, or institutions for the training of teachers, wherever 
they may be employed. These additional salaries range from $200 to 
$400. Income from private institutions have not been taken into 
consideration. 





Schools. 


Students. Hearers. 




Jan., 1894. 


Jan., 1890. Jan., 1894. 


Jan., 1890. 




2,515 


2,502 

7 


16 


27 




5 












Total 


2,515 1 2.509 


16 


32 











There were, according to the foregoing figures, 6 students more and 
16 hearers less in attendance in January, 1894, than in January, 1890. 

Examinations. — Six hundred and forty- six candidates were examined 
for admission; of this number, 490 were admitted to the lowest class; 
150 to higher classes, and 40 failed. At the final examination, at the 
close of the year, 1,733 students were transferred, 368 remained in the 
same class, and 6 withdrevr. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDb. 

[At 29 "gymnasia" (30 in 1889).] 



537 



Examinations for admission to course of 1S93-94 compared with 

1S89-90. 
Lowest class : 

Examined 

Admitted , 

Rejected 

Higher classes ; 

Examined 

Admitted to upper class 

Admitted to lower class 

Rejected 

Transition examinations to course 1894-95 and 1S90-91. 

Examined , 

Promoted 

Not promoted , 

Retired , 



1893-94. 



622 
465 
157 

173 
89 
49 
35 



2,070 

1,687 

370 

13 



1889-90. 



645 
490 
155 

190 

101 
49 
40 



2,103 

1,733 

370 

6 



Difference 
in four 
years. 



—23 

—25 
+ 2 

—17 

—12 



—33 
—46 



+ 7 





Final examinations in 
gymnasia. 


Examina- 
tions by 
State com- 
mission. 


Total. 


Differ- 




Students. 


Foreigners. 


in four 
years. 




1894. 


1890. 


1894. 1 1890. 

1 


1894. 


1890. 


1894. 


1890. 


Candidates: 


5 
232 

85 


9 
193 

92 


2^6 
23 


2 
49 

5-6 


2 
51 

28 


2 

22 

24 


9 
309 

136 


13 
264 

142 


-1 


Theology, law, letters, and philosophy. 
Medicine, mathematics, and natural 


-1-45 
6 








Total 


322 


294 


51 
6 


77 
7 


81 
5 


48 
6 


454 
11 


419 
13 


+35 

2 












Certificates obtained : 


5 
210 

82 


9 
176 

86 


2 
13 

13 


1 
25 

12 


2 
31 

19 


14 
14 


9 

254 

114 


11 
215 

112 


- 2 


Theology, law, letters, and philosophy. 
Medicine, mathematics, and natural 


+39 

+ 2 




Total 


297 
25 


271 
23 


28 
17 


38 
32 


52 
24 


29 
13 


377 
66 


338 
68 


+39 
2 









New gymnasia buildings have been erected at Arnbeim, Delft, Gonda, 
and Leeuwarden since 1889. The general conditions and accessories 
for instruction of all gymnasia are very satisfactory and constantly 
improving. 

Private superior instruction. — (a) The Free University of Amsterdam 
has a director, the incumbent being in 1893 0. M. E. van Loben Sels. 
(6) The college of curators is composed of 2 members; 1 rector and 7 
professors are employed as teachers, (c) The total number of students 
during the year amounted to 85, registered as follows: Fifty-seven in 
the faculty of theology; 3 in the faculty of theology and law; 3 in the 
faculty of theology and letters ; 12 in the faculty of law ; and 10 in the 
faculty of letters. Eighty students in 1889. 

The library received various new works. 

The following examinations were passed: Five with a degree of can- 
didate of divinity ; 2 with a degree of candidate in the faculty of letters ; 
1 first exauiination for doctor's degree; 11 proi^sedeutic examinations 
in theology, and 1 in law. 



538 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



Besides the Free University of Amsterdam, there are about 26 
denominational private institutions for superior instruction in other 
parts of Holland, some of which receive subsidies from the State. 

They are designated as follows: (1) Seminaries, (2) colleges, (3) Latin 
schools, (4) training schools. 

The aim of most of these institutions is the training of young men 
for ministers in their respective churches, and for teachers of higher 
branches. 

In 1893 there were 3,774 students enrolled in 26 of these denomina- 
tional institutions. The number of teachers can not be ascertained 
with accuracy, but was about 317. Total students in 1889, 1,996. This 
shows an increase in four years of 1,778 students. 

Expenditures of the Government for higher instruction. 





Teachers' sal- 
aries. 


Trustees and 
officials. 


Material and in- 
cidentals, build- Total, 
ing, etc. 




1893-94. 1889-90. 


1893-94. 


1889-00. 


1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1893-94. ! 1889-90. 


Universities : 


$108,517 
84,080 
74, 110 


$112,058 
85,323 
71,154 


$55, 680 
18, 853 
14, 905 


$50, 879 
16, 897 
14, 759 


$139,103 
76,118 
30, 081 


599, 545 
42, 384 
31, 025 


$303,308 -^^fiS n«5 


Utrecht 


179,651 
119, 096 

230, 914 


144, 604 




116, 938 
133, 424 


For various expenditures 
for the training of stu- 
dents at sectarian semi- 
naries and colleges ; sub- 
sidies for gymnasia and 
progymnasi'um ; Latin 
schools, and incidentals; 
subsidy to University of 










1 


















832, 967 
658, 048 

174, 919 


658, 048 


Increase in four years 































Income of the Government for universities. 





1893-94. 


1889-90. 


From tuition fees of students regulated by articles 63 and 67 of the law of 
April 28, 1876, and by the law of June 22, 1881 


$81,735 

10, 564 

1,098 


$80, 115 


Income received in conformity with article 89 of the law (examinations) 


8,799 
2,095 






Total 


93, 997 
91,009 


91, 009 








2,988 









RECAPITULATION. 

Total income from enumerated sources 

Total expenditures 

Excess of expenditure over income of universities provided for out of 
the general treasury of the Kingdom 

Increase in four years 



$93, 997 
832, 967 



738, 970 
567, 039 



171, 931 



$91, 009 
658, 048 



567, 039 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 539 

Expenditures of the University of Amsterdam, supported by the commune. 





1893-94. 


1889-90. 


Salaries of trustees anil professors, etc 


$101, 991 
45, 179 


$115, 345 
20 034 


TVfntftrinl, ptr, , 








Total 


147, 170 
135, 379 


135 379 










11, 791 








Income of the Comviunal University 


of Amsterdam. 




Fees for tuition and examinations 


$53, 064 

1, 206 

4,020 

274 


$46, 398 
1 206 






4,020 
C94 










Total 


58, 564 
52,318 


52 318 










6,246 








RECAPITULATION. 




$58, 564 
147, 170 


$52, 318 
135 379 






for from tlie 




Excess of expentliture over income of university provided 


88, 606 
83, 061 


83 061 










5, 545 








Expenditure'' of communes for "gymnasia" at 


d, "proyym 


nasium.'' 






1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1888-89. 


Difference 
in live 
years. 




$307, 520 

22, 224 

1, 253 

1,005 


$303, 362 
21,111 

1,209 
607 


$298, 108 

26, 222 

1,173 

674 


+ $9,412 
3 998 




Commission of superintendents 


+ 80 
+ 331 






Total 


332, 002 


026, 289 


326, 177 


-L 5 8''5 






Income of the communes. 




1893-94. 


1889-90. 


1888-89. 


Difference 
in five 
years. 




$93, 726 

84, 717 

1,830 


$92, 936 

82, 875 

2,472 


$93. 362 
82, 486 
2,279 


+ $364 

+ 2,231 

449 










Total 


180,273 
151, 729 


178, 283 
148, 006 


178,127 
148, 050 


+ 2,146 
3, 679 









540 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



The following is a review of tlie consolidated expenditures for higher 
instruction after deducting the subsidies paid by the General Govern- 
ment and provinces from the expenditures of the communes, and of the 
income from the school fees, etc., from 1878 to 1893, inclusive : 



Tear. 


Income 
from 
school 
fees, 
gradu- 
ation, etc. 


Expendi- 
tures. 


Tear. 


Income 
from 
school 
fees, 
gradu- 
ation, etc. 


Expendi- 
tures. 


1878 


$142. 591 
155, 110 
159, 582 
185, 457 
183, 271 
181, 763 
180, 975 
191,017 
204, 177 


$691, 214 
819, 738 
983, 402 
956, 651 
918, 631 
1, 026, 416 
1, 042, 821 
978, 765 
980, 026 


1887 


$210, 985 
216, 351 
223, 452 
228, 878 
232, 083 


$982, 144 
1, 024, 106 


1879 


1888 


1880 


1889 


1, 025, 573 


1881 


1890 


1, 072, 172 


1882 


1891 


1, 111, 240 


1883 


1892 


933. 927 


1, 136, 339 


1884 


1893 933 989 


1, 123, 479 


1885 


Total 






1886 


3, 163, 601 


15, 872, 717 







The excess of the total expenditure over the income, $12,709,116, was 
provided for out of the respective treasuries of the communes and 
provinces or out of the treasury of the General Government. 

Summary of all expenditures of the General Government, of the provinces, and of the com- 
munes for public higher, secondary, and primary instruction, and of income from these 
schools as given in previous tables. 

EXPENDITURES. 



Por State universities and 
Communal University 
of Amsterdam 

For training of theolo- 
gians (Reformed and 
Evangelical Lutheran )6. 

For gymnasia, Latin 
schools, and cost of ex- 
aminations in higher 
cour.ses (articles 11 and 
12), etc 

For secondary instruction . 

For drawing academies 
and industrial schools 
and schools for deaf- 
mutes 

For veterinary school 

For training schools for 
midwives 

For primary instruction . . 



General Govern- 
ment. 



1893-94. 1889-90 



$609, 271 
30, 577 



99, 394 
562, 019 



$531, 777 
28, 682 



97, 590 
427, 630 



Provinces, a 



1893-94. 1889-90 



$4, 020 



104, .364 51,833' 21,403 
32, 982] 34, 7421 



16,199' 15,195, 
2, 438, 955 1, 868, 676 



Total 3,893,7613,056,125 25,423 



Communes. 



1893-94. 1889-90 



$4, 020 $147, 170 



18, 121 



332, 002 
627, 037 



112, 825 



$135, 379 



326, 290 
561, 667 



95, 810 



5, 389, 136 4, 598, 279 



22, 141:6, 608, 170 5, 717, 425 



Total. 



1893-94. 1889-90. 



$760, 461 
30, 577 



431, 396 
1, 189, 056 



238, 592 
32, 982 



16, 199 

7, 828, 091 



671. 170 
28, 682 



423, 880 
989, 237 



165, 764 
34, 742 



15, 195 
6, 466, 955 



10, 527, 3541 8, 795, 690 



o The expenditures of the provinces represent sums which they paid to the communes — various 
sums for industrial and drawing schools, for schools for deaf-mutes, etc., and $4,020 to the commune 
of Amsterdam for the university. 

b Also to Roman Catholic and Israelite congregations. 



EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 



541 



Summari/ of all expenditures of the General Government, etc. — Continued. 

INCOME, a 



From univensities (4) tuition and ex- 
amiiiatiou fees, inchiding 2 subsidie.s 
to communes X 

From gymnasia and Latin schools (tui- 
tion fee.s and subsidy) , 

From secondary instruction (tuition 
fees, for diplomas, and 2 subsidies to 
communes) 

From drawing academies, etc 

From veterinary schools (tuition fees) . 

From primary instruction (school and 
examination fees and subsidy to com- 
munes) 

Total income from sources indi- 
cated above 



Increase in 4 years. 



General Govern- 
ment. 



1893-94. 1889-90. 



$93, 997 



44,417 
1,204 
7,699 



164, 744 



312, 061 



$91, 010 



37, 540 



9,599 



248, 293 



Communes. 



$58, 664 
180, 273 



234, 942 
2,440 



2, 111, 115' 



2, 587, 434 



1889-90. 



$52, 319 
178, 285 



203, 443 
1,389 



2, 290, 781 



Total. 



1893-94. 



$152, 661 
180, 273 



279, 359 
3,644 
7,699 



2, 275, 859 



2, 899, 495 
2, 539, 074 



360, 421 



$143, 329 
178, 285 



240, 983 
1,389 
9,599 



1, 965, 489 



2, 539, 074 



RECAPITULATION. 



From balance of expenditure over income paid by General Government. . 

From balance paid by province 

From balance paid by communes 

Total 

Total expenditures 



1893-94. 



$3,581,700 

25, 423 

4, 020, 736 



7, 627, 859 
10, 527, 354 



$2, 807, 832 

22, 141 

3, 426, 643 



6, 256, 616 
8, 795, 690 



a Subsidies to the communes and contributions to the Government, such as the amounts withheld from 
salaries by the Government for the pensions of teachers, special sums contributed to the communes, 
etc., have been included in the foregoing table, except the subsidy for drawing and industrial schools. 

After consolidating the expenditures of Government, provinces, and 
communes 5 that is, after deducting the subsidies of the Government 
and provinces that have been included in the expenditures of the com- 
munes for public education, the expenses incurred between communes 
for transferred pupils to neighboring schools in other communes, the 
special funds that were raised by the communes for educational pur- 
poses, the teachers' contributions toward their iiensions, and the unex- 
pended balance of subsidy funds covered back into the Government 
treasury, the tables of expenditure and Income for the years 1889-90 
and 1893-94 read as follows : 

Actual sums that were paid out of the- general treasury of the Government or out of the 
treasury of the provinces and communes, 

EXPENDITURES. 



For universities 

For training of theologians.. 

For gymnasia, Latin schools. 

For secondary instruction, 
drawing academies, etc., 
included 

For veterinary school 

For training schools for mid- 
wives 

For primary instruction 



General Govern- 
ment. 



1893-94. 1889-90. 



609,271 $531,777 
30, 576| 28, 682 
99, 394 97, 590 



598, 467 
32, 982 



16, 198 



462, 852 
34, 742 



15, 195 



2,291,5091,764,236 



Total 3, 678, 397 2, 935, 074 



Provinces. 



1893-94. 



$4, 020 



21, 403 



25, 428 



1889-90. 



$4, 020 



18, 121 



22,141 



Communes. 



$141, 944 
'238,' 275 

652, 930 



3,911,822 



1889-90. 



$130, 152 
"233,352 

569, 338 



3, 296, 317 



4, 944, 971 4, 229, 159 



Total. 



1893-94. 



$755, 234 

30, 576 

337, 669 



1, 272, 800 
32, 982 



$665, 949 

28, 682 

330, 942 



1, 050, 311 
34, 742 



16, 198 15, 195 
6, 203, 331 5, 060, 553 



8, 648, 790 7, 186, 374 



542 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



Actual aiims tliat ivere paid out of the general treasury of the Government, etc. — Cont'd. 

INCOME. 



rrom universities (tuition fees) 

rrom gymnasia and Latin schools 

(tuition fees) 

From secondary instruction (tuition 

fees, diplomas) 

From veterinary school (tuition fees).. 
From primary instruction (tuition 

fees) 



Total . 



General Government. 



1803-94. 1880-90. 



$93, 997 



45, 621 
7,699 



a 17, 298 



16i, 615 



$91, 009 



37, 539 
9,599 



5,706 



143, 853 



Communes. 



1893-94. 1880-90. 



$53, 438 

86, 547 

150, 450 



633, 801 



924, 236 



$47, 093 

85, 348 

116, 693 



553, 383 



802, 517 



Total. 



1803-94. 18S9-90 



$147, 435 
80, 547 



196, 071 
7,699 



651, 099 



1, 088, 851 



$133, 102 

85, 348 

154, 232 
9,599 

559, 089 



916, 370 



a This sum includes $12,253 derived from examination fees and $5,045 from tuition fees. 

After subtracting the income of the various educational institutions, 
derived from fees for diplomas and tuition, from the actual expendi- 
tures of the Government, x^rovinces, and communes, we obtain the fol- 
lowing result: 





1893-94. 


1889-90. 




$1, 088, 851 
8, 648, 791 


$946, 370 

7, 186, 374 






Excess of expenditure over income from enumerated sources 


7, 559, 940 
6, 240, 004 


6, 240, 004 




1.319,945 









These sums were paid out of the respective treasuries of the General 
Government, provinces, and communes. 

There are no special school taxes raised in the Netherlands, and all 
funds for education in that country are taken from the general taxes 
imposed by the Government and provinces, or from the local taxes of 
the communes. 

Communes that are unable to supi)ort the necessary number of schools 
send in a i^etition to the " Gedeputeerde Staten" (legislative body of 
the Kingdom), who refer it to the minister of the interior, and in case 
of his approbation a subsidy or loan may be granted out of the general 
treasury of the Government. The principal proportion of expenses for 
the communal schools is paid by the city treasurers from local taxes. 



. CHAPTER XII. 
EDUCATION IIvT ITALY. 



Topical outlixe: PubUc instruction in Italy, % Dr. Egisto Bossi (ivith statistics for 
1S61-1S90)— Statistics to 1S92-93 — Tabulated statistics of universities {1S9S-D4 and 
1S94-95 compared), iy Prof. Carlo F. Ferraris-r-Tlie Catholic school system of Borne, 
extracts from an article hy Cardinal Satolli — Schools of Leghorn in 1S93, by the 
United States consul — Current educational movements, 1S90-1895 — Scientific and 
professional organizations in consular district of Rome to 1S91, by the United States 
consul-general — Memorable dates in Italian history — Index to education in Italy, 
from former reports of the Commissioner of Education. 

Area, poj)iilation, and administrative divisions. — Area, 110,623 square miles; popula- 
tion, 30,724,897 (estimated December 31, 1893) ; capital, Eome; population, 451,000 in 
1893; minister of puLlic instruction, Commendatore Guido Baccelli. The administra- 
tive divisions consist of 69 provinces, of which 60 are divided into territories and (the 
province of Mantua and the 8 provinces of Venetia) into districts. The territories 
(circondari) number 197, and there are 87 districts (distretti). These ngain are 
divided into communes (comuni), numbering 8,259 in 1881 and 8,258 in October, 1894. 

Educational summary. — With a population of 30,724,897 in 1893 there were 11 per 
cent of pupils in schools below the universities. Of the total (3,106,852) about 96 
per cent were in elementary schools and 3 per cent in secondary schools. In higher 
institutions the percentage was 0.6] in special schools, 1.1 per cent. Per capita of 
enrollment in elementary schools, $4.09; per capita of population, 39 cents. 

The administrative and educational authorities are brought closely together in 
their duties, as is shown in the statements appended. The State, province, or com- 
mune maintains public instruction; a member of the cabinet is in charge of educa- 
tion; the King himself appoints certain grades of instructors; the parliamentary 
bodies discuss and decide uj)on educational questions; the prefect of the province 
is president of the provincial school coiincil; the syndic looks after the registration 
of pupils of school age, notifies parents of neglect of duty, etc. 

Public Instruction in Italy. ^ 

By Dr. Egisto Eossi,^ Bome, Italy. 

Public instruction in Italy is regulated by law of USToveraber 13, 1859. 
This law lias been modified, however, by royal decrees and by later 
laws. 

1 Prepared for the International Congress of Education of the World's Columbian 
Exposition, Chicago, July 25-28, 1893, and printed in part in the "Addresses and 
Proceedings of the International Congress of Education," pp. 907-911. 

'■'Dr. Eossi is the author of a volume on education in the United States — "La Istruz- 

ioue Pubblica negli Stati Uniti, Roma, 1889," pp. 144. 

543 



544 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 



Tlie educational systeju' comi^rises three grades — elementary, second- 
ary (including classical and teclinical schools), and superior. There are 
also infant schools which aim to give the rudiments of an education to 
children between 3 and 6 years of age, the latter being the earliest 
age at which children are admitted to the i)rimary grades. 

Private individuals of known character and capability are permitted 
to open infant schools and those of elementary and secondary grades, 
providing the localities in which the schools are to be opened are satis- 
factory from a hygienic point of view to the authorities. 



INFANT SCHOOLS. 

The compulsory education laws do not apply to the infant schools. 
These are founded by the communes, by corporations, associations, and 
private individuals. Many of them are autonomous in character, pos- 
sessing their own revenues, which accrue from perpetual funds and 
donations. Other schools are supported entirely by the individuals or 
corporations founding them. 

Almost all these schools receive subsidies from the commune, prov- 
inces, and the State, in addition to the funds received from the sources 
mentioned above. The children receive gratuitous instruction in the 
majority of infant schools; in a few a small fee is charged, the means 
of the family being taken into consideration in making such charges. 
In 1889 the communes gave $317,532 to the infant schools, the State 
$8,G85. 

The number of infant schools and of children attending them is 
enumerated in the following table: 

Infant schools. (a) 





Schools. 






Public. 




Total. 




Tear. 


Having 
their own 
revenues. 


Supported 

by com- 
munes or by 
corporate 
bodies. 


Private. 


Pupils. 


1862 








1,673 
1,099 
1..287 
2,516 
2,139 
2,224 
2,218 
2,220 
2,296 


71 054 


1872 








130 806 


1877 








117 078 


1882 








243 972 


1886 


976 
1,021 
1,055 
1,081 
1,118 


513 


fi<;n 


259 763 


1887 




258, 838 


1888 


539 
537 
596 


624 
602 
582 


1889 


268, 186 
278, 204 


1890 





a The Annuario Statistico Italiano, 1895, gives 2,572 infant schooLs in 1,776 communes, with 302,754 
children and 6,488 teachers and directors, in 1893. 

» Statistics to date of 1892-93 or to 1891-92 are added, in form of note, to this 
presentation. They are taken from the "Annuario Statistico Italiano, 1895," pub- 
lished by the " Miuistero di Agricoltura, Industria e Cominercio. Direzione generale 
della Statistica, Roma, 1896." 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 545 



ELEMENTARY SOIIOOLS. 

The elementary schools are in charge of the communes and are 
under the supervision of their administrative officers. In conformity 
with the law they are gratuitous and are maintained by subsidies from 
provincial and communal funds. In accordance with special laws, the 
State aids in such support by subsidies for construction and repairs 
and for teachers' salaries. The State is authorized to favor communes 
which are too imi^overished to construct school buildings by granting 
subsidies for such buildings, or by extending other aid, either by loan 
or gift, if there is any special reason for so doing. If any loans have 
been made the State undertakes to reimburse the iiistitution loaning 
said fund, adding thereto a nominal interest. 

The elementary schools are frequented by children from (3 to 12 years 
of age. These schools are divided into two grades; the lower grade, 
which extends through three years, is subdivided into two classes, 
equivalent to a two-years course. The course of study includes writing, 
elementary arithmetic and the metric system, history of Italy, ele- 
ments of geography, natural history and physics, civic education, and 
gymnastics. 

All the communes are required to establish lower grade elementary 
schools; communes of 4,000 inhabitants and over are required to estab- 
lish those of the higher grade. In these larger communes there must 
also be institutions of a secondary grade. 

By law of July 15, 1877, which carried out the provisions of the law 
of 1859, parents were obliged to send their children between G and 9 
years of age to the elementary grades, unless they could show cause for 
instruction at home or in private schools. This compulsory act could 
be carried on beyond the ninth year if the pupil, when called up for 
examination at close of the course, did not indicate satisfactory knowl- 
edge of the studies in the lower grade elementary schools. 

By decree of February 10, 1888, i)upils of both public and private 
schools, and those who obtain home instruction, must receive certificates 
of having passed such final examinations before they can be placed on 
the registration list for the hokling of iDolitical or administrative office. 
Parents and guardians who fail to conform to the above regulations are 
subject to censure from the syndic, and, in case of further noncompli- 
ance, they are subject to a fine of not less than $3.50. 

By law of July 15, 1877, which went into force in October, 1877, each 
commune is required to have a certain number of teachers trained for 
duty in these lower grade elementary schools. This number is to be 
proportionate to the population. 
ED 95 18 



546 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 



The folloAviiig table indicates the number of communes from 1861-G2 
to 1889-90 wliicli have fulfilled tlie requirements of the law of July 
15, 1877, as far as the number of schools, pujiils, and teachers is con- 
cerned: 



Year. 



1861-G2 . 
1865-B6 . 
■"1870-71 . 
1875-76 . 
1880-81 . 
1885-8G . 
1886-87 . 



1889-90 . 



Popula- 
tion. 



777,3341 

777,334 

801, 154i 

801,1541 

459,628 7,804 
009, 785 8, 178 
942, 142 8, 178 
266, 056 8, 178 
565, 188 8, 226 
916, 317 8, 253 



Class rooms. 



w 



21, 3.53 

25, 682 
l32, 782 
138, 255 
42, 510 
41,0235, 050'46, 073 



Enrollment. 



1, 949, 038 



126, 903 



41, 448 5, 137 46, 585,1, 970, 552 135, 406 

41, 913'5, 334'47, 247 1, 985, 436,139, 771 

42, 305 5, 267|47, 572 2, 002, 957 141, 604 
42, 837J5, 361'48, 198 2, 047, 671 141, 259 



Total, a 



885, 152 
1, 098, 721 
1, 458, 884 
1, 722, 669 

1, 928, 708 

2, 075, 941 



Ratio. 



ISumber of Number en- 
schools toioo! rolled to 100 
inhabitants, inhabitants. 



1.38 0.17 



2,103,9581.39 .17 
2,125,2071.38' .18 
2,144, 561|1. 39! .17 
2,188,9301.39 .17 



0.98 
1.18 
1.22 
1.43 
1.49 
1.55 
1..56 
1.56 
1.56 
1.56 



CO)®® 

■2 -235 



6. 56( 

6.58 

6.56 

6.56 

6.62 



4. 06 
5.04 
5.44 
6.43 
6.78 
6.99 
7.03 
7.02 
7.02 
7.07 



flin 1892-93 (viilo Annuario Statistico Italiano, 1895) there Tvere 2,487,803 pnpils in public and pri- 
vate schools of au elementary grade (boys, 1,311,018; girls, 1,176,785); class rooms, 58,277; teachers, 
60,380. 

The ratio of schools, teachers, and pupils to population is based in 
the years 1801-62 to 18G5-GG upon the census of December 31, 1861; 
that of 1870-71 to 1875-7G, upon the census of December 31, 1871, and 
that of 1880-81, upon the census of December 31, 1881. The reports 
presented for the other years mentioned in the table are based upon 
an estimate of poi)ulation made annually in the month of December 
following the opening of the schools. The estimate of poimlation is 
formulated upon the basis of December, 1881, adding to it the births 
in each year and siibtractiug the deaths, ^o attention being paid to 
the movement of population, i. e., the immigration and emigration, 
such a determination is liable to error, and such errors increase in pro- 
portion to the time that has elapsed from the date of the original 
ceiisus. The movement from one commune to another exercises but 
little influence upon the territorial department to which it belongs, and 
less upon the total for the Kingdom. On the other hand, the emigration 
to foreign shores must not be overlooked in so far as it appertains to 
the whole Kingdom. It is fairly easy to take note of the emigration, but 
the means api)roximating the immigration and the return of Italians to 
their native country is less easy. The estimates relative to the move- 
ment of population, as, for example, the estimates of mortality, by 
province and by territory (circondari), and also in the largest cities, 
taken one by one, necessitate that calculations appertaining to the 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 



547 



population of these subdivisions be made at least approximatelj^, and 
yet the population is calculated on the supposition that the increase 
from year to year is in the same proportion as the augmentation during 
the period between the last two censuses. 

Proceeding, then, by this method it is found that the population on 
December 31, 1889, would be 29,909,054, while if the excess of the 
births over the deaths were added between the dates 1882-1889 to the 
population of 1881, the result would be 30,940,317, which exceeds by 
more than 1,000,000 the number estimated by the first method. 

The increase in the number of elementary schools and in enrollment 
was more rapid during the period which followed the formation of the 
Kingdom of Italy than it is to-day. 

The ratio of increase is as follows : 



Teriod. 


Increase 
of pupils to 
100 inhab- 
itants. 


Increase of 

pupil.s in 

re8])ect to 

population. 


1861 62 to 1867 68 


5.32 
3.30 
2.06 


4.45 


18C7-G8 to 1871 72 


2.71 


1871 72 to 1889 90 


1.23 







There are also elementary, evening, holiday, and adult schools suj)- 
plementary to the public day schools. It is not considered obligatory 
uj)on the communes to support many of these schools^ the number 
is quite large, however, and most of them receive subsidies. The 
number of the evening and holiday schools, with their enrollment, is 
here presented for certain years between 1801-02 and 1889-90 : 

Evening and liolidaij schools, (a) 



Tear. 



1801-62 
1871-72 
1877-78 
1882-83 
1887-88 
1888-89 
1889-90 



Evening schools. 



Class 
rooms. 



Enrolled. 



2,803 
9,809 
10, 577 
6,787 
5,022 
5,191 
5,205 



108, 170 
375, 947 
432, 801 
278, 377 
205, 160 
191, 600 
190, 846 



Holiday schools. 



Class 
rooms. 



495 
4,743 
5,792 
3,831 
3, 965 
3,625 
3,574 



Enrolled. 



16, 031 
154, 585 
195, 631 
120, 110 
113, 188 
100, 150 
100, 002 



rt Statistics of evening schools in 1892-93: Class rooms, 3,492; teachers, 3,639; pnpils, 128,780 (boys, 
124,789; ftirls, 3,991). Holiday schools: Class rooms, 2,454; teachers, 2,507; pupils, 64,580 (boys, 

15,080; girls, 49,494). 



The increase in the number of schools and pupils is of signifi- 
cance as tending to account for the decrease of illiteracy shown by 
the three successive censuses as that illiteracy bears upon the total 
population, the various classes, and the age. At least, it bears upon 
the number of recruits and illiterate married people to every 100 



548 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 



examined and upon tlic number of married men and married "women 
respectively^ 





liTative 
recruits 

who 
could not 
read to 
100 exam- 
ined. 


Married 


men and 


Illiteracy to 100 inhabitants. 


Tear. 


could not write 
their names. 


From years 
upward. 


From 20 years 
upward. 




Men. 


Women. 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


1861 








68 


81 


65 


82 


18GG 


64 
57 
52 
48 
47 
46 
44 
45 
43 
42 


60 
58 
52 
48 
45 
44 
43 
43 
42 
41 
41 


79 
77 
73 
70 
67 
66 
63 
63 
62 
60 
50 




1871 . 


C2 


76 


60 


77 


1876 




1881 


55 


69 


5t 


73 


1884 




1885 




1 1 


1886 








1887 








1888 








1889 








1890 

















NORMAL SCHOOLS. 

Tlie normal scliools serve as preparatory schools for teacliers of the 
elementary grades. The State provides the funds for the teaching 
force and for scientific apparatus. The remaining expenditures and 
those for the "Convitti" (establishments where pupils are boarded 
and lodged) are paid by the provinces and communes in which the 
normals are located. 

There are still other schools of this character for the training of teach- 
ers ■which are maintained exclusively by provinces and communes, by 
corporations or individuals, while some receive State subsidies. 

The normal schools are of higher and lower grades for men and for 
women. The lower-grade normal schools have only the power to confer 
teachers' diplomas for the three lower classes of the lower-grade ele- 
mentary schools. The higher-grade normals, on the contrary, confer 
the diploma required to teach in the elementary schools of both higher 
and lower grade. In the normal schools for women a certificate or 
diploma is also conferred, which permits its holder to become a teacher 
in or directress of an infant school. 

Instruction in the normal schools is gratuitous. The course is one of 
two years in the lower- grade normals, and is x)receded by a preparatory 
course of three years. 

An examination for admission is required of those who wish to enter 
the normal schools. Each normal has a practice school attached, in 
which the i)upil can obtain x^ractice in teaching. The normals for 
women have also an infant school attached, which is divided into three 
sections. 

Persons desiring to obtain a teacher's position in the elementary 
schools are apj)oiiited by the communes (which pay them), after compet- 
ing for such i^osition in a competitive examination before the provincial 
school council. This council, after examining as to their qualifications, 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 



549 



presents the list of persons eligible to sncli iiositions, and the communal 
council Las the duty to select and ai>point the teachers. To determine 
the minimum legal salary for teachers, the elementary schools are 
divided into two categories, urban and rural, and each of these catego- 
ries into three classes, in accordance with the wealth and population of 
the commune. The minimum legal stipendia, according to law of April 
11, 1886, are as follows: 





City schools. | 




Eural schools. 




Higher. 


Lower. i 


nig 


her. 


Lower. 




Men. 


Women. 


Men. 


Women. 


Men. 


Women. 


Men. 


Women. 


First class 


$254 $203 
213 170 

193 l.'i2 


$193 
183 
173 


$152 
14G 
139 


$173 
164 
152 


$139 
131 
123 


$152 
144 
135 


$123 
115 




103 











The stipends are augmented one-tenth for every six years of service 
in the same commune until the salary has been increased four times. 
The following table indicates the number of normal schools and j)upils 
for certain years commencing with 1861-02: 

Xonnal schools, (a) 





Schools. 


Pupils enrolled. 


Year. 


Govern- 
ment 
schools. 


Other 
schools. 


Total. 


lu Govern- 
ment 
schools. 


In other 
schools. 


Total. 


18G1 62 






86 
115 
101 
121 
133 
134 
137 
137 
141 






3,742 


1871 72 










6,130 


1875 76 










6,775 
8,865 
10, 542 


1881 82 










1885 8G 


80 
82 
83 
95 
98 


53 
52 
54 
42 
43 


7,243 
7,808 


3,299 
3,252 


1S8G 87 


11,060 


1887 88 


11, 694 


1888 89 


10, 052 
12, 204 


2,804 
2,980 


12, 856 


1889 90 


15, 184 







olu 1892-93 there were 148 normal schools (100 Government), 1,534 teachers (1,034 in Government 
normal schools), 18,077 pupils (14,493 in Government schools). Of the pupils 1,703 were men, 16,974 
women. 



There are other institutes auxiliary or complementary to those foi 
elementary instruction. Among the first-mentioned are two ''convitti'^ 
(establishments where pupils are boarded and lodged and which have 
elementary schools attached) for the oriihans of elementary teachers, 
and the institutions for the blind and deaf-mutes 5 among the second 
are comprised the "convitti," the educational institutions for girls and 
the two higher-grade normals for girls. 

The expenditures for the elementary, evening, and holiday schools, 
for the normals, and for the other institutions noted above, infant schools 
excluded, however, are as follows: In 1888-89 the provinces expended 
$153,892; the communes, $10,866,756. In 1890-91 the State expended 
$1,048,452. 



550 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



SECONDARY CLASSICAL AND TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 

The aim of secondary classical instruction is to train young men in 
the studies requisite for acquiring the literary and philosophical knowl- 
edge which entities them to enter upon special studies leading to the 
academic grades of a university. These branches of instruction are 
imparted in the "ginnasio" (lower grade classical school) in a fiA^e-years 
term, and in the ^'liceo" (higher grade classical school) in a three- 
years term. In order to be admitted to Class I of a "ginnasio" the 
student is required to pass an entrance examination in the branches of 
the higher elementary grade, and in order to be admitted to the first year 
of a "liceo" it is necessary to possess a gymnasial license (licenza gin- 
nasiale), while the license of a "liceo" (licenza liceale) is required for 
admittance to a university course. The "ginnasi" are supposed to be 
supported by the communes, but in some provinces the State maintains 
them, in accordance with special laws. 

The "licei" are supported by the State, as far as the expenditures 
for teachers and scientific material are concerned; the expenditures for 
the buildings and furniture are borne by the communes. 

The State, either by law or by special agreement with the communes 
or other corporations, cooperates in maintaining the "ginnasi" and 
nongovernmental •' licei." The communes, corporate bodies, and private 
individuals supjiort similar institutions. 

The State, moreover, maintains the "convitti" annexed to the gov- 
ernmental "ginnasi" and "licei,'' and, by law or special agreement, it 
also subsidizes other "convitti," whose maintenance would naturally 
belong to a province, commune, or to a corporate body or association. 
The aim of technical-professional instruction is to impart to young 
men who are ambitious to enter upon a specified career in the public 
service, i. e., in industrial, commercial, and skilled agricultural pursuits, 
such general and special knowledge as is required for these pursuits. 

This knowledge is acquired and taught in technical schools, techni- 
cal institutes, and in the institutes for the mercantile marine. 

The course of instruction in the technical schools lasts three years, 
at the end of which a diploma is given to the successful candidates; 
this diploma is required for admission to a technical institute or to an 
institute for the mercantile-marine service. In the technical institute 
the instruction is divided, according to the i)rofession to be pursued, 
into 5 sections, namely, physico-mathematics, land surveying, agricul- 
ture, commerce and trade, and industrial pursuits. 

The courses last four years, and are divided into two biennial periods; 
one common to all sections, and one a special course for each section. 
In the institutes for the mercantile-marine service the instruction is 
divided into G sections, viz, as captains for the coast service, naval 
constructors of the second class, and machinists of the second class, 
a two-years course; cai)tain for long-distance courses and naval con- 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 



551 



structors of the first class, a three-years course; and macliiiiists of the 
first chiss a four-years coarse. 

The diploma of the physico-iaathematical section entitles, as does 
the "licenza liceale," to admission into the faculty for physical, mathe- 
matical, and natural sciences of a university. 

The following table presents the number of institutes in which 
secondary classical and technical instruction is given, and the number 
of students enrolled: 

Institutes for secondary classical and iechnical instruction, (a) 
INSTITUTES. 





Ginnasi. 


Licei. 


Technical 
schools. 


Technical 
institutes. 


Institutes of 

the merchant 

marine. 




state. 


Public 
and pri- 
vate, (b) 


State. 


Public 
and pri- 
vate. (6) 


State. 


Public 
and pri- 
vate. (&) 


State. 


PubUc 
and pri- 
vate. 


State. 


Public 
and pri- 
vate. 


1861-G2 


93 
90 
103 
104 
113 
130 
131 
148 
154 
177 




67 

69 

78 

80 

83 

97 

99 

104 

108 

112 








16 


5 




1865-66 






46 

55 

63 

63 

107 

123 

143 

161 

184 


'""326' 
318 
296 
266 
246 
209 


52 
65 
73 


14 


1870-71 




25 


1875-76 




30 


1880-81 

1885-86 

1886-87 

1887-88 

1888-89 

1889-90 


588 
597 
604 
580 
560 
546 


215 
229 
227 
216 
201 
203 


40 
46 
49 
51 
54 
54 


39 
27 
25 
19 
21 
19 


21 
20 
19 
18 
19 
19 


5 
4 
4 
3 
2 
2 



STUDENTS ENROLLED. 



Tear, 



18C1-G2. 
1865-00. 

1870-71. 
1875-76 . 
18S0-81. 
1885-86. 
1886-87. 
1887-88. 
1888-89. 
1889-90. 



In the ffinnasi. 



Public 
State. I and pri- 
vate. 



28, 248 

31, 528 

32, 284 
31,940 
31,471 
31,007 



In the licei. 



State. 



3,005 
3,280 
3,645 
5, 532 
5,989 
7,219 
7,523 
7,620 
8,138 
8,396 



Public 

and pri- 

■s-ate. 



5,144 
6,477 
6, 342 
6,108 
0,706 
5,607 



In technical 
schools. 



State. 



Public 
and pri- 
vate. 



15, 268 
15,814 
15, 438 
14, 284 
13, 504 
12, 531 



In technical 

institutes. 



Public 
State, land pri- 
I vate. 



1, 

3, 

4, 
5, 
4,696 
5, 193 
4,836 
4,599 
4,937 
5,904 



231 
438 



2,182 
1,813 
1,395 
1,089 
1,066 
1,123 



In institutes of 

the merchant 

marine. 



State. 



Public 
and pri- 
vate. 



265 
536 
870 
965 



1,< 



734 
641 
646 
651 

781 



a In 1891-92 there were 735 "ginnasi" (178 State, 557 public or private) ■witli 4,429 professors; students 
57,525 (ill State ginnasi 25,380 ;"public or private 32,145). The ''licei" numbered 321 (State 113, otliers 
208); professors 1,853; students 15,713 (State 9,371, in other licei 6,342). The technical schools num- 
bered 390 (State 184, others 215) ; professors 2,893; .students 34,244 (State 21,411, others 12.833,) Tech- 
nical institutes 74 (State 54) ; professors 1,315 ; students 8,647 (in State institutes 7,203). There were 21 
naval institutes — " istituti nautici" training for the maritime scr^-ice— (of these 19 Government) 
■with 179 professors; students 1,320 (in Government 1,301). 

b Until the close of 1879-80 tliero were no statistics published for nongovernment institutes. 

The maintenance of the technical schools is imi^osed upon the com- 
munes where they are established. The State pays half of the teach- 
ers' expenses, however.- In some cases, in accordance with special laws, 
technical schools are entirely in charge of the State. 

The expenditures for the technical institutes and for those of the mer- 
cantile marine are borne in part by the State, which pays half of the 



552 EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. 

expcuses for tlic teacliers and otlier emijloyees, and iu part by tlie prov- 
iuccs and communes. 

The expenditures for buildings and nonscieutific material arc fiir- 
nislied by tbe communes where the institutes are situated. 

The expenditures for classical and technical schools and for the 
"convitti" for boys were accredited as follows — to the State, communes, 
and provinces — during the years 1888-89 and 1890-91 : 

Provinces (1888-89) $447, 128 

Communes (1888-89) 1, 39G, 608 

State (1890-91 ) 2, 389, 207 

Still another class of instruction is imparted in institutes and special 
schools, such as practical schools of agriculture, agrarian schools, indus- 
trial schools, schools of art and trade, and lirofessional schools. The 
expenditures are paid in part by the State, which, through subsidies 
given to the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, in accord- 
ance with special laws to that effect, cooperates with the i^rovinces, 
communes, and other corporate bodies. In order to secure admission 
to one of these schools it is necessary to have successfully finished the 
elementary courses or otherwise to have passed an examination for 
admission. 

During the school years 1888-89 and 1890-91 the expenditures for 
this class of schools were distributed as follows : 

Provinces (1888-89) $125, 677 

Communes (1888-89) 325, 498 

State (1890-91) 439, 655 

SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. 

The highest grade of education is furnished iu the universities, the 
superior institutes, and in superior special schools. The "Istituti 
Superiori" include the schools for engineers, the veterinary schools, the 
literary and scientific academy, the higher normal school for instruc- 
tion iu literature, and the superior institute for the perfecting of studies 
in Florence with its university faculties. 

The universities comprise in general four faculties — law; philosophy 
and letters; i^hysical, mathematical, and natural sciences; and medicine 
and surgery. 

In some universities the schools of pharmacy and veterinary schools 
arc annexed to the faculty of medicine and surgerj^ Not all universi- 
ties have four faculties. The degree of doctor (Laurea) is conferred iu 
each faculty a,t the close of the course. In the higher institutes there are 
faculties or sections of faculties where doctors' degrees and dii)lomas 
are conferred at the close of the course. 

In the sx)ecial schools diplomas are given for the different subjects 
taught there. 

The special schools are the superior commercial schools, whose pur- 
pose it is to prepare j^oung men for the management of banking and 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 



553 



commercial institutions, or for the career of coiisular agents in foreign 
countries, or for the position of instructors in the science of economics 
in technical institutes; the superior agricultural schools, v/hich prepare 
teachers of agricultural sciences and to promote agricultural interests 
by means of experimental research; the superior naval school, for the 
training of naval and hydrographic engineers and naval constructors; 
the institute of forestry, for training persons as forest inspectors; and 
the industrial uiuseum, for training as mechanical engineers (ingegneri- 
industriale), chemistry, and in special branches of mechanics and 
physics. 

The expenditures for universities and superior institutes are in 
charge of the State and are included in the budget of the ministry of 
public instruction. The revenues and property of these institutions 
aid in their maintenance, and the fund is added to that administered by 
the State. 

Some provinces cooperate, by means of si^ecial contracts with the 
State in the payment of exj)enditures for the increase of scientific 
apparatus, for the annexed schools, for the laboratories, and collections 
of tlio uuiversiti'es which are located in the respective i^roviuces or com- 
munes. There are 17 Government universities. Four are called "free," 
because they are maintained by the provinces and communes where 
they are situated. The superior institutes are under Government con- 
trol, and are 11 in number. 

The superior special schools are also 11 in number, and are maintained 
by the State (the fund being included in the budget of the ministry of 
agriculture, industry, and commerce) in conjunction Avith the provinces 
and communes where they are situated. 

The two superior institutes for the education of women are depend- 
ent on the ministry of public instruction, to the accounts of which the 
expenditures are charged. The following table gives a survey of the 
universities, the superior institutes, and the superior special schools, 
with a summary of the number of students enrolled in said institutes, 
commencing with the year 186G-G7: 



Index of universities, sujjerior institutes, and special superior schools. 





Superior institutes. 


Superior special schools. 


Dniversities. 


o 


Place. 


Is 

t>1 


1 

o 

'A 


Place. 




A. —State. 

1. Bologna. 

2. Cagliari. 

3. Catania. 

4. Genoa. 

5. Macerata. 


1 


Bologna— School of Applied 
Sciences for Engineers. 

Florence— Institute for supe- 
rior practical studies and 
Xirofessional studies. 


1877 
1859 


1 
2 


Bari — Superior School of Com- 
merce. 
Plorence — School of Social 

Science, a 


1837 
1875 



ED 95- 



-18* 



a Founded by iirivate initiative. 



554 



EDUCATION EErORT, 189i-95. 



Index of tiniversiiles, superior institutes, and sjjecial sujperior schools — Continued. 





Superior institutes. 


Superior ei)ecial schools. 


T'niversities. 


o . 


Place. 




"3 

o 


Place. 


.a 


A.— .State— C'tW. 

C. Messina. 

7. Modena. 

8. Xaples. 

9. Padua. 

10. Palermo. 

11. Parma. 

12. Pavia. 

13. Pisa. 

14. Home. 

15. Bassari. 

16. Siena. 

17. Turin. 

a.— Free. 

1. Camerino. 

2. Terrara. 

3. Perugia. 

4. L'rbino. 


3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

8 


10 

11 


Milan— Scientific Literary 

Institute. 
Milan— Superior Technical 

Institute. 
Milan— Superior School for 

Veterinary Medicine. 
Naples— School of Applied 

Sciences for Engineers. 
!israples— Superior School of 

Teterinary Medicine. 
Pis.i— Superior IS'ormal School . 
Rome— School of Applied 

Sciences for Engineers. 
Turin— School of Applied 

Sciences for Engineers. 
Turin— Superior School o f 

Teterinary Medicine. 


1859 

1859 

1859 

1810 

1856 

1846 
1873 

1859 

1796 


3 

4 
5 
6 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


Florence — Superior Institute 

for the Education of 

"Women. 
Genoa— Superior School of 

Kavigation. 
Genoa— Superior School o f 

Commerce. 
Milan — Superior School of 

Agriculture. 
Palermo— Superior School of 

Sulphur Mining, a 
Portici— Superior School of 

Agriculture. 
Home— Superior Institute for 

the Education of "Women. 
Turin — Italian Museum of 

Industry. 
Yallomhrosa — Institute o f 

Forestry. 
Venice— Siiperior School of 

Commerce. 


18S2 

1870 
1SS7 
1870 
1572 
1872 
1882 
1862 
1869 
1868 



a "Was closed during school rear 1886-87 



Universities, superior institutes, and special schools, (a) 





2f umher of students enrolled (hear- 
ers included). 


Tear. 


Number of students enrolled (hear- 
ers included). 


Tear. 


Univer- 
sities sup- 
ported by 
State. 


Free 
univer- 
sities. 


Superior 
insti- 
tutes. 


Superior 
special 
schools. 


TJniver- j -p 
sitiessup- t.ii„„ 


Superior 
insti- 
tutes. 


Superior 
special 
schools. 


1866-67 


10, 098 
11,274 

11, 239 
11,379 
11,340 
11,694 
11, 378 
11,205 
10, 026 

8,657 
8,529 
9,161 


283 
299 
295 

278 
282 
303 
306 
277 
264 
237 
219 
203 


682 
- 841 

988 
1,084 
1,148 
1,181 
1,143 
1,021 
1,108 
1,265 
1,160 
1,085 




187&-79.... 

1879-80 

1880-81 

1881-82.... 
1882-83.... 
1883-84.... 
1884-85.... 
1885-86.... 
1886-87.... 
1887-88.... 
1888-89.... 
1889-90.... 


9,814 
10, 335 
11,117 
11,889 

12, 596 
13,333 

13, 958 

14, 500 
15,196 

15, 503 

15, 950 

16, 512 


214 
238 
269 
302 
281 
243 
271 
317 
345 
371 
372 
410 


1,033 
1,144 
1,235 
1,375 
1,532 
1,544 
1,715 
1,858 
1,961 
1,959 
1,955 
1,996 


689 


1867-68 

1868-69 

1869-70 

1870-71 

1871-72 

1872-73 

1873-74 

1874-75 

1875-76 

1876-77 

1877-78 


93 

306 
367 
403 
509 
499 
537 
574 
673 
602 
628 


622 
730 
397 
434 
513 
517 
515 
701 
789 
1,005 
879 



a In 1891-92 there ■were 17,347 students and hearers and 1.493 professors in State iiniversities; in free 
(libera) universities, 445 students and 79 professors. In the superior institutes, 2,033 students and 233 
professors; in .superior special schools, 860 students and 158 professors. 

The expenditures borne by tlic State for universities and otlier 
institutes and special scliools amounted to 82,077,959 for tlie scliool 
year 1890-91, wliicli sum was included in the budget of the minister of 
public instruction, and $112,905 in the budget of the ministry of agri- 
culture, industry, and commerce. 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 



555 



Tlie amounts contributed by the provinces and communes to the 
funds of universities, superior institutes, and superior special scliools 
are added to tlie provincial and communal budgets. This fund is sep- 
arate from the amounts furnished by the associations or corporate 
bodies for the general increase and progress of studies. To this latter 
amount the provinces furnished $457,811 and the communes $829,190 
for the year 1888-89. 

But the State revenues for this year indicate that the provinces and 
communes will only cooperate to the extent of $152,530 in the mainte- 
nance of universities and other institutions administered by the State. 
The superior special schools, as has been mentioned before, are founded 
and maintained conjointly by the State, the provinces, and the com- 
munes, and are managed by local commissions, which include in their 
membershij) representatives from corporate bodies which aid in tlie 
maintenance of said institutions. 

As appendix to this article, we add the latest statistics of universi- 
ties, presented by Prof. Carlo F. Ferraris, and taken from the Eevue 
Internationale de I'Enseignement for October, 1895. 



Enrollment in higha 


• instiluUons i) 


1894-95 compared with 1893 


-04. 




Name, etc. 


Facul- 
ties, 
and 
schools 
of law, 
of phar- 
macy, 
and of 
obstet- 
rics. 


Schools 
of ap- 
plica- 
tion an- 
nexed 
► for the 
engi- 
neers. 


Total. 


Veteri- 
nary 
schools, 
inde- 
pendent 

or an- 
nexed to 
univer- 
sities. 


Schools 
of agri- 
iculture 

an- 
nexed. 


Genera: 

total 

for 

1894-95 


Total 
for 

1893-94. 


In- 
crease 
(+) or 

de- 
crease 

(-). 


Eoyal universities having 4 facul- 
ties: 


5,040 

2,305 

1,916 

1,475 

1,244 

1,287 

1,240 

1,003 

760 

806 

502 


230 

266 

113 

128 

134 

82 

26 

7 

3 


5,270 

2,671 

2,059 

1,603 

1,358 

1,369 

1,272 

1,010 

772 

806 

502 


163 
91 




5,433 

2,762 

2, 059 

1,003 

1,457 

1,369 

1,272 

1,010 

972 

806 

502 


5,205 

2,609 

1,752 

1,420 

1,384 

1,488 

1,223 

990 

900 

748 

456 


-f 228 
.-fl53 
-f 307 

^ 177 














99 




+ 73 
119 










-f 49 
+ 20 

-1- 72 
+ 58 
-t- 46 










28 


172 


















Total 


17, 573 


1,119 


18, 092 


381 


172 


19, 245 


18, 181 


-f 1 064 






Eoyal universities having 3 facul- 
ties : 


384 
385 
201 

229 
157 

264 




384 
385 
201 

229 
157 

264 


28 
23 




412 

408 
201 

229 
157 

264 


354 
372 
191 

230 
139 

188 


+ 58 
-f 36 






-f 10 


Eoyal universities Laving 2 facul- 
ties: 






— 7 








-f 18 


Koj al university having 1 faculty : 






-f 76 










Total 


1,020 

529 

77 

161 




1,620 


51 




1,671 


1,480 


+ 191 






Eoyal superior institutes : 


""'246' 


529 

77 

401 






529 
77 

401 
88 


489 
61 

418 
71 


+ 40 

+ 16 

17 








Milan (technological institute) . 






88 




+ 17 










Total 


767 


240 


1,007 


88 


^^ 


1,095 


1,039 


+ 56 







556 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

Enrollment in higher institutions in 1894-95 compared with 1893-94 — Continued. 



Name, etc. 


Facul- 
ties, 
and 
schools 
of law, 
of pliar- 
niacy, 
and of 
obstet- 
rics. 


Schools 
of ap- 
plica- 
tion an- 
nexed 
for the 
engi- 
neers. 


Total. 


Veteri- 
nary 
schools, 

inde- 
pendent 
er an- 
nexed to 
univer- 
sities. 


Schools 
of agri- 
culture 

an- 
nexed. 


General 

total 

for 

1894-95. 


Total 

for 

1893-94. 


In- 
crease 
(+)or 

de- 
crease 


Free universities : 


265 

143 

84 

76 




265 

143 

84 

76 


38 
19 




303 

162 

84 

76 


226 

144 

95 

92 


-f 77 

+ 18 

11 










16 










Total 


568 




568 


57 




625 


557 


+ 68 




University schools annexed to the 
lyceums : 


53 
50 
46 




53 
50 
46 






53 
50 
46 


49 
28 
56 


+ 4 

+ 22 

10 



























Total 


149 

252 
50 
53 





149 






149 


133 1 -+- 16 






" 


Schools of obstetrics : 


252 
50 
53 




252 
50 
53 


259 
52 
48 


7 








2 








-t- 5 








Total 


355 
21, 032 




355 






355 
23,140 


359 
21, 749 


— 4 






172 






1,359 


22, 391 1 -"iV? 


+ 1, 391 









THE CATHOLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ROME. 

Through the courtesy of the editor of the North American Keview 
(December, 1894, i)p. 641-664), we have been permitted to make extracts 
from an article on the above subject, written by Archbishop SatoUi 
(since created cardinal). This article clearly defines the work done by 
the papal authorities in Rome since 1870: 

The education furuishcd in the Catholic schools of Rome is open to all classes, and, 
although their supremo aim is to educate the new generation in a Christian manner, 
they vary in method according to the grade, from the infant asylum up to the uni- 
versity courses, which are still exclusively reserved to the State by law. The number 
of Catholic schools is extraordinarily l?«rge, exceeding botli that of the Government 
and municipal schools. 

The supreme direction of all these schools is vested in the cardinal vicar, for the 
congregation of studies has only the surveillance of the higher courses of the clerical 
institutes. He is assisted in the direction of the elementary schools — 

(1) By the pontifical commission, appointed by his holiness in accordance with 
the letter addressed to the cardinal vicar, dated June 26, 1878. Of this commission 
the monsignor vicegerent is the head. 

(2) By special committee for the schools which are founded and maintained by the 
Society of Catholic Interests. 

(3) By a special committee for the catechetical evening or night schools. 

(4) By a special committee for the schools which are dependent on the apostolic 
almonry. 

(.5) By a special committee for the night and evening schools. 

These committees, although each is independent of the other in its sphere of action, 
are all subject in general matters to the pontifical commission, in which each of them 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 



557 



is represented by one or more meniLers. This tie, far from being an impcdimeut to 
tbc development and progress of the various institutions, ratlicr helps to keep them 
united by harmonizing their actions in such a way that their work does not conflict. 

The pontifical commission, however, reserves the right to regulate questions of 
discipline, to compile the j)rogrammes, select the text-books, fix the days for exami- 
nation, and other similar matters. It has also charge of the correspondence with the 
Holy See and the administration of the subsidies given by the Holy Father or by 
Y)rivate bodies or individuals. 

Two inspectors are assigned to the supervision of the schools which are under the 
immediate direction of the commission. The committees provide for the other 
schools. In addition to these inspectors, every member of the commission having 
the title of "patron" has the supervision of a certain number of schools. Two hun- 
dred and eleven different directors, divided up as follows, re-iiresenf the commission 
and the committees at the various schools : 

Directors. 

Free schools for males 28 

Paying schools for males 14 

Evening schools for males 13 

Catechetical schools for males 8 

Industrial schools for males 4 

Asylums and boarding schools 5 

Free schools for females 50 

Paying schools for females 32 

Sunday schools for females 18 

Catechetical schools for females 7 

Evening schools for females 1 

Industrial and professional schools 10 

Academies and orphan asylums 21 

Total 211 

As a rule, the directors are not obliged to teach. The selection and inspection of 
localities are intrusted to an architect, who is attached to the pontifical commission. 
In the direction of the higher and technical schools the cardinal vicar is assisted by 
a council of direction, which possesses the same powers as regards the high schools 
as the x^ontifical commission has over the primary schools. The members of both 
these bodies — clergy as well as laity — are noted for their nobility of birth, as well as 
for piety and learning. In addition to these, there are also high schools, which, 
although they follow the regulations of the others, may be called independent, inas- 
much as they belong to the religious corporations. The number and classification of 
these schools will be found in Tables A and B : 

Table A. — Scliools for 'boys. 



Classification. 




Pupils. 



Free schools 

Paying schools 

Eveuing schools 

Cateclietical schools 

Industrial schools 

Free asylums 

Paying asylums 

Hospices and hoarding schools 

Other elementary preparatory schools 

Total 



3,953 
991 

1,468 
885 
501 

1,727 
207 
395 
823 



10, 950 



558 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1894-95. 
Table B. — Schools for girls. 



Classification. 



Xumber. I Pupils. 



Frco schools 

Paying schools 

Sunday schools 

Evening schools 

Catechetical schools 

Industrial schools 

TYee asylums 

Paying asylums 

Academies and oi'phan asylums 

Total 





50 


5,692 




32 


2,072 




18 


1,274 




1 


53 




7 


560 




10 


448 




18 


2,278 




5 


180 




21 


1,072 



13, 035 



RECAPITULATION. 



Of the schools 
Per boys... 
For girls . . . 

Total.... 

Of tho pupils : 

Boys 

Girla 

Total.... 



Kumher. 



94 
162 



10, 950 
13,035 



24, 585 



In speaking of the distribution of scliools, Mgr. SatolU saj's: 

It has been the -wise and constant aim of the pontifical commission, aided by the 
religious corporations, to distribute the elementary schools as widely as possible and 
to conduct them in such a manner that, by their discipline, by tho choice of teachers, 
by the cscelleuco of their method of teaching and their educative course, they should 
merit tho sympathy of the public and the confidence of the family. * * * 

The pontifical commission therefore did well in avoiding the plan of erecting large 
schools at a considerable distance apart and in deciding to establish a number of 
smaller schools, which, though more modest, would be convenient to all. As a result, 
there is not only not a parish, but there is hardly a street of any importance in Eome, 
that does not i)ossess a Catholic school. It must not be inferred from this that the 
Catholics lack great scholastic edifices. On tho contrary, in the past few years 
some beautiful buildings have been erected through the instrumentality of religious 
corporations. 

Mgr. Satolli lays stress upon the fact that — 

The first requisite of a good school is to have good teachers. * * « 
And at this point it is only proper to pay a tribufo of praise to the religious corpo- 
rations, which have stopped at no expense or sacrifice to provide the commission with 
a select body of teachers, both men and women, furnished with proper diplomas, and 
who, by their ability, zeal, and spotless character, have merited and enjoy to the full 
the confidence, not only of the commission, but of tho public. 

Teachers bad also to be provided for such schools as were not dependent on reli- 
gious corporations, of which there are a considerable number, and exi)erience has 
shown it to be very difficult to obtain teachers who, in addition to their i)rofessional 
diplomas of residence, oifer those secure guaranties of sound principles and morality 
which are indispensable for those who teach in Catholic schools. The jiontifical 
commission therefore deemed it advisable to establish normal or teachers' schools 
designed to prepare their scholars for the career of teachers. The first of these to be 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 559 

establislicd was ono for women, and is called St. Catherine's lustitnte. Another 
similar college for men was founded two years ago. St. Catherine's Institute, which 
has npw been in existence fourteen years, has been productive of excellent results, 
inasmuch as it not only furnishes the Lest teachers for Catholic schools, but its grad- 
uates arc even sought after by the municipality, which justly esteems them for their 
culture and conduct. The same gratifying results are confidently expected from the 
male college when its courses shall have been comi)leted. ^ " 

Speaking of tlie coarse of study, Mgr. Satolli says: 

In the compilation of the programmes the commission endeavors to bring them as 
far as possible into harmony with those in use in the public schools, both as regards 
the division of classes and the courses of stxidics. In the schools for girls a finish- 
ing course of two years was added, so that the pupils, especially in the academies, 
might bo able to acouire a superior education to that imparted at the elementary 
schools. « * * 

As regards the method of teaching, the commission strongly urged the teachers to 
adhere to the old system, which means that method by following which Dante, keen- 
est of observers, noted the most relevant facts of life and of the physical world; 
by which Columbus discovered America and Galileo left, in the sphere of physical 
study, an immortal record. It is the method of observation which the modern Ital- 
ian iiedagogues very uupatriotically declare to have come from over the Alps, while, 
as a matter of fact, if it can bo called the glory of any country, it is the glory of 
Italy. 

The commission decreed that this method should be applied in an Italian spirit — 
that is, without northern vagueness and exaggeration, and not as a means of com- 
bating the supernatural, but of ascending toward it. It holds that the teaching of 
the school is intended for life, and for the whole life, for man does not live by bread 
alone. * * 

While the pontifical commission Avas engaged in the direction of the elementary 
schools the directive council worked with equal zeal in the management of the 
high schools. Of the two the latter arc the more important, because while the first 
provide for the education of the lower classes, the second initiate into the sciences 
and to an upright life that class which, fresh from the universities, is destined to 
form the cultured and influential section of society. 

There are in Eomo 18 high schools dependent on the Holy See, viz, 5 lyceums,^ 
5 gymnasiums, 5 technical schools, 2 normal schools, and 1 technical institute of 
higher grade. [See Table C] 

Table C. — Statistical summanj of the high schools for the year 1S9.3-03. ('-) 

Institute Augelo Mai: Students. 

Lyceum 70 

Gymnasium 140 

Technical school ICO 

Gt. Apollinaris: 

Lyceum 109 

Gymnasium 3G8 

Technical school 96 

Theology " . . .- 140 

Law 3 143 

Philosophy "> 62 

Letters ^ 23 

'The schools designated as lyceums and gymnasiums are equivalent to our high 
ochools. 

2 The special schools of law, theology, etc., are not included in this number. 
■■'Special classes. 



560 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

Institute Massimo : Students. 

Lyceum 48 

Gymnasium 216 

Technical scbool 59 

Vatican Seminary : 

Lyceum 18 

Gymnasium 88 

Philosophy ^ 15 

Theology ' 20 

College Santa Maria : 

Lyceum \ 

Gymnasium i 

Institute de Merode, technical institute 85 

Little Brothers of Mary, technical institute (preparatory) 117 

Institute of St. Joseph, technical institute 213 

Institute of Fathers of Pious Schools, normal for boys 17 

Institute of St. Catherine, normal for girls 200 

Salesians of Don Bosco Gymnasium - 100 

Scliolars- 

Lyceums 245 

Gymnasiums 1, 082 

Technical schools 585 

Technical institutes 85 

Normal S(;hools 312 

Elementary preparatory 823 

Total 3, 132 

The technical and normal schools, as well as the technical institutes, have all been 
founded since 1870 — partly during the pontificate of Pius IX and partly during that 
of Leo XIII. Of the gymnasiums and lyceums 3 have been established since that 
date; the others were already in existence, but owing to the new laws it became 
necessary to reform them in many respects. 

Of these 18 institutes 7 belong to religious corporations, tlio remainder being 
directly dex^endeut on the directive council and pontifical commission. The Collegio 
Nazzareno, which is a most flourishing institution, is not included among this num- 
ber, because, although founded and directed by the Fathers of the Piotis Schools, it 
is under the jurisdiction of the local authorities. 

As against these 18 Catholic institutions there are in Rome 19 State and 1 munici- 
j)al high school — that is, 3 lyceums, 4 gymnasiums, 8 technical schools, 3 normal 
schools, and 1 higher technical institute. If we take into account the lyceum- 
gymnasium of the Collegio Nazzareno, the Catholic high schools equal in number 
those of the Government. 

\y In speaking of the religious side of ediicatiou, Mgr. Satolli says: 

The commission has continually reminded the teachers that instruction is good 
only when it is united with an earnest moral and religious education. It therefore 
decreed that a fixed time should be set apart daily for catechism, so that the pupils 
from their earliest years should be familiarized with those pious practices which 
form the character of the true Christian. * * * 

Tlie commission, moreover, being fully convinced that no branch of study, espe- 
cially philosoiihy or history, can be correctly and comjiletely taught without the aid 
of religion, which like a luminous beacon guides the understanding, directed that 

' Special classes. 

-The oratory is attended by 700 pupils. 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 561 

religious iustructiou should be given at least once a week in all the schools and classes, 
vrith a \iew not only to improve the minds of the pupils, hut as the most effectual 
means of imparting that complete religious and moral education which is the supremo 
aim of Catholic schools. 

In order that the pupils may from their earliest years become familiar with the 
practices of Christian piety, sodalities have been formed, each of which has a spirit- 
ual director, whoso duty it is to see that the members comply with the rules and fulfill 
all their religious duties. Special spiritual exercises are held by these sodalities at 
Easter, when children whose parents desire it are prepared for their first communion. 

Tho Avork of the pontifical commission and directive council does not end with the 
direction of the elementary and high schools, for there is no class of citizens for which 
these bodies, aided by the religious corporations, have not provided the means of 
obtaining a Christian education and the highest grade of culture in the easiest 
manner. 

Acting on the advice of the directive council, the holy father founded in Kome 2 
institutes of superior courses or finishing courses, namely, tho Academy of Historic 
Jurisprudence and the School of Higher Literature, and selected as their professors 
men noted for their scientific and literary attainments. Tho first of these institu- 
tions is devoted to jurisprudence, history, and archaeology; the second to ancient and 
modern literature, t - 

Boarding houses. — Two boarding houses have Ijeen 'provided for tlio scholars who 
come to Rome from the provinces. One of these has been in existence for many 
years and is set ajiart for those who attend the university courses ; the other, which is 
for the girls who attend tho teachers' institute, was erected by a committee of ladies 
as a memorial of tlie episcopal jubilee of tho holy father, and by them turned over 
to tho deserving Salesian Missionary Sisters. It is not only required that those who 
are admitted to these houses fulfill their duties as good Christians, but, in addition, 
religious, scientific, and literary conferences are frequently held, with a view to 
confirming the scholars in good principles. 

Boarding schools. — There are in Rome 26 boarding schools, of Avhich number 5 are 
for boys and 21 for girls. They are attended by 395 boys and 1,072 girls. All these 
schools belong to religious corporations. It is needless to add that the seminaries 
for the clergy, of which there is a very large number, are not included under this 
head. The rate charged at these boarding schools ranges from 30 to 80 lire monthly 
($5.79 to $15.44), so that they are accessible to families of moderate means as well 
as to those of affluence. In some of these schools free scholarships have been 
established. * * *j 

111 describiug tbe boartliug scliools for girls Mgr. Satolli says: 

The instruction given to tho girls in these boarding schools is divided into two 
grades — elementary and superior. In some of them tho entire normal course is given, 
thus enabling such pux^ils as desire it to obtain diplomas. Tho sisters v/ho conduct 
these courses are furnished witli diplomas of j)rofessorship, obtained after examina- 
tion at the State unis'ersitics. In tho examination which took place for this inirpose 
four years ago by concessions of the minister, the Sisters of St. Ann of Providence, 
the Oblates of the Infant Jesus, the Ladies of tlio Sacred Heart, the Marcelline Sis- 
ters, and the Sisters of St. Josei^h especially distinguished themselves. 

The Government maintains in Rome two colleges, viz, a boarding school for girls, 
which is attached to the normal school, and the provincial school for boys. 

Semihoarding schools. — To a number of these boarding schools are attached what 
are known as "mezza peusione; " that is, schools attended by day scholars who take 
their midday meal there. They arc a comparatively new institution, and have met 
with much favor among the families who have taken advantage of them. 

Orphan and other asylums. — No city of Italj', or, indeed, in the world, possesses in 
comparison so many charitable institutions for every class of poor and suffering 
persons as Rome. - ^ * 



562 EDUCATION REPORT, 1S94-95. 

Not to meution those institntious wliicli do not como witliiu the scope of this 
article or those which existed prior to 1870, I shall only allude briefly to the ones 
established since that date. Preeminent among these is the Hospice of the Sacred 
Heart, conducted by the Salesians, Avhich was opened last year by the cardinal 
vicar as a memorial of the episcopal jubilee of the holy father. It is an immense 
building of beautiful design, and includes not only elementary schools but also art 
and industrial schools, a gymnasium, and library. The scholars who attend the day 
or night schools here are educated gratuitously, and only a very small fee is charged 
for the boarders. This institution contains in all about 300 i)upils. * * * 

Another institution which is maintained by voluntary contributions is the Pious 
Institute of the Immaculate Conception, which was founded by the Brothers of 
Charity, familiarly known as the Grey Brothers. It receives orphans gratuitously, 
and also maintains day and boarding schools containing about 400 pupils. 

The orphan asylum of the Sisters of Cluny, of St, Jerome Emiliani, the Protectory 
of St. Joseph, the Asylum of the Sisters of Nancy for Idiot Children, and the Insti- 
tute for Abandoned Orphans, conducted by the Daughters of the Passion of Calvary, 
should also bo included under this head. 

lu each of these charitable institutions the inmates, in addition to receiving an 
elementary education, aro specially instructed in some art or trade, thus enabling 
them to earn an honest livelihood in after life. 

Infant asylums. — The pontifical commission has under its jurisdiction '10 infant 
asylums, of which 32 are free. As against these the municipality has only 12. lu 
these asylums, as in every other Catholic institution, every part of the modern 
method which is good and iisoful has been adopted. * * •■ 

Art and trade schools. — Among the art and trade schools in Rome are the Institute 
of Pius IX and the Hospice Bonanni, for young artisans; the Institute of Vigna Pia, 
for instructing i^oor boys in agriculture, and that of Tata Giovanni, where the jioor 
are instructed in various arts and trades. 

In all the above, in addition to reading and writing, special care is given to the 
study of design, Avhich is accounted a great aid in learning the arts and trades. The 
evening schools, founded by the Artisan and Working Society, hold examinations 
yearly of the work of the i)upils, which is executed accurately and artistically. * * * 

Industrial schools. — In addition to the higher courses and finishing courses adapted 
to the daughters of wealthy parents, industrial schools Avero opened for girls belong- 
ing to the x>oorer classes. Only those girls are admitted to these schools who have 
completed the higher courses in the elementary schools, although pupils who have 
only passed tho third class are sometimes admitted. Embroidery of various kinds, 
sewing, cutting garments, ironing, repairing, and every other branch of housework 
necessary to qualify tho jiupils to earn their livelihood aro taught here. The most 
skillful pupils are rewarded by a small daily honorarium. Some of these pupils 
have earned such a reputation for good work among the iieoplo that they receive 
more work than they can execute. 

The professional schools under the direction of the Sisters of Charity of St. Yin- 
cent do Paul and of the Sisters of Divine Providence in the Piazza Fiammetta are 
specially noted for the excellent quality of their work as well as for the number of 
their pupils. 

Catechetical schools. — These schools were especially established for the boys and 
girls who attend the State or municipal schools where no religious instruction is 
given. There are 15 of these schools, 8 for boys and 7 for girls, the average yearly 
attendance being 1, U5. These schools are a most efficacious help to the clergy, for, 
like tho other Catholic schools, they help to prepare tho boys and girls for their first 
communion and to instruct them in the duties of a good Christian. 

Sunday schools, which have the same object as the catechetical schools, are 18 in 
number, and contain 1,274 pupils. 

Owing to lack of space, it is imj^ossible to describe all the other Catholic institu- 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 563 

tiona in Rome which have for their aim the education of youth. No mention can 
therefore be made of the Catholic clubs, the literary and scientific academies, read- 
ing and debating circles, etc. * * * 

MgT. Satollij referring to matters of discipline, states that — 

The schools are regarded by many j)arcnt3 simply as j)lace3 \Yhcro their children 
are taken care of for a few hours daily; others look upon them as workshops where 
the children learn to read, write, cipher, and nothing else. Indeed, there are only a 
few who appreciate the exalted and delicate function of the schools. It has been 
wisely ordained that every Catholic school^ especially the higber ones, should have 
a special j)rcfect of discipline. This prefect watches the coming and going of the 
pupils from their classes, kcciis a record of the absent and late ones, corresponds 
with the parents of the children, and sees that all the regulations are rigidly en- 
forced. The existence of this office helps not only to maintain discipline but is also 
an important factor in the proper progress of the studies, for the president and 
directors, being relieved of all care in matters of discipline, are freer to superintend 
the teaching and teachers. 

In order to excite in the pupils the sjiirit of emulation, prizes arc offered at the 
beginning of each scholastic year. In the higher and paying schools silver medals 
and diplomas are awarded, while in the free schools gifts of clothing are bestowed. 

The punishments inflicted in the Catholic schools are similar to those in use in the 
State schools, but, happily, it is only very rarely that the severest one, expulsion, has 
to bo resorted to. 

In sjieaking' of the expenditures, Mgr. Satolli says : 

It is difficult to form an accurate estimate of the amount expended on so many 
and such varied scholastic institutions as have been mentioned. The paying schools 
directed by the religious cori^orations, which provide for current expenses out of 
their own funds, in common with those which derive an annual allowance from 
the pontitical commission, dejieud upon jiublic munificence and upon other sources 
for the balance uecessarj' for their support. Nearly all the primary schools, and 
also the secondary institutes, which are directed by lay folk, are entirely depend- 
ent upon the pontifical commission and upon the school fund set apart by the holy 
father. 

Taking iuto account simply the amount furnished by the Pontifical commission 
and by the administration of the estates of the Holy See for the high schools, the 
annual expenditure exceeds 1,000,000 lire ($193,000). 

The average yearly income of the iiontifical commission is about 400,000 lire 
($77,200), and the outlay nearly equals that amount. 

This income is derived — 

(1) From direct donations of the holy father. 

(2) From the administration of the estates of the Holy See. 

(3) From the donations of certain corporations of the chapters of the patriarchal 
churches, and from the contributions of sacred congregations, and of some private 
individuals. 

(4) From the fees of the x^npils of St. Catherine's Institute and of the Gregorian 
College. 

With the amount thus obtained the pontifical commission provides — 

(1) For the ordinary and extraordinary allowances of the personnel. 

(2) For the furnishing, etc., of the schools. 

(3) For the distribution of books, etc., among the poor pupils. 

(4) For the rental of the schools antl asylums. 

(5) For the erection and repairs of buildiugs. ^ * * 

All the members of the pontifical commission, including the president, who has 
the general direction of the schools as well as of the administrative office, give their 
services gratuitously. 



564 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

Tliero are several schools, orphauages, and asylums, ■wliich do not derive their 
support from the pontifical commission, but which are maintained exclusively by 
the Roman aristocracy or by Catholic societies or committees. 

If the amount which is sx)ent by the religious corporations and that which is saved 
by their giving their services gratuitously, as well as the sum which is derived 
annually from public and i>rivate benefactors, were added to the amount spent 
yearly by the pontifical commission, the expenses for primary Catholic education in 
Rome would reach a total of at least 1,500,000 lire yearly ($289,500). 

Aniong the schools wholly maintained by the administration of the estates of the 
Holy See are the Historical- Juridical Academy, the School of Higher Literature, also 
called the Leonine Institute, the Lyceum-Gymnasium, the Technical School Angelo 
Mai, and the Technical Institute Do Merode. 

With the exception of the Leonine Institute, the administration of all these 
institutions is vested in the directive council. 

lu summing uj) the work done in these various institutions, MgT. 
Satolli states tliat — 

The supreme end of these institutions, which is religious and moral education, has 
not been neglected in the regulations, programmes, books, or methods of teaching; 
and it has been their special aim to deviate as little as possible from the national 
traditions, which so harmoniously combine faith and science, and to furnish the boya 
and girls of the new generation with that grade of culture which is best adapted to 
their social i>osition. 

That the Roman people appreciate the beneficent eflbrts of the holy father and 
tho work of all those who, with sentiments of profound admiration and reverence, 
assist him, is demonstrated by the ever-inci'easing number of pupils who flock to the 
Catholic schools. 

THE SCHOOLS OF LEGHORN IN 1893. 

An interesting presentation of the schools of Leghorn is made by the 
United States consul, Eadcliffe H. Ford. It is here appended. 
Mr. Ford says: 

The schools of Leghorn compare favorably with those of the United States, con- 
sidering the time they have been established, as, until the unification of all the 
provinces of Italy in 1870, there was no general school system. Leghorn has six 
schools devoted to the teaching of the higher branches and special courses, which 
are supported by the Government, aided by municipal contribiitions, ranging from. 
$1,780 to $3,500 annually. There are 42 public schools supported entirely by the 
city, with an annual attendance of about 3,600 pupils, the annual cost of which is 
about $55,000. Tho establishing of these schools throughout Italy marks tho first 
step of real progress for the common people, and can not help being manifest in the 
coming generations. Among the schools supported by the Government, with muni- 
cipal aid, are those known as mechanical and industrial schools. 

The schools in this district of an industrial nature, where trades or mechanical pro- 
fessions are taught, are situated in Leghorn, Volterrn, and Carrara. Tho school at 
Leghorn is known as "Scuola di Arti o Mestieri" (School of Arts and Trades), and 
was established by the municipality under a royal decree in the year 1886, but only 
went into successful operation in 1888. It is a free school, supxiorted by moneys 
derived from the following sources annually : 

City of Leghorn $1,942 

Province of Leghorn 579 

Chamber of commerce, Leghorn 232 

Ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce 780 

National treasury for schools of machinists 386 

Total 3, 919 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 565 

The age for admissiou is from 12 to 16 years, and the most of the pupils cuter at 
the earlier limit. For eutranco it is necessary that the apiilicaut have a. certificate 
of promotion from the third to the fourth class of the regular public schools or pass 
an examination showing siich proficiency in reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, 
and geography as would be necessary for such promotiou. 

The school will accommodate 170 i>upils, and the limit is full. 

There are four sections or divisions in the school, and the branches taught and 
length of course Aary in different sections. The sections of the school are as follows : 

(1) Industrial and metallurgical, course three years, comprising arithmetic, geomet- 
rical drawing, decorative drawing, mechanical design of machinery, with practical 
work in machine shop, and in the last year technical electricity by oral lessons, with 
practical work in the manufacture of electricity by an electric-light plant. 

(2) Decorative arts, course three years, comprising arithmetic, geometry, decora- 
tive drawing, with practical work on room walls with oil colors, lithography, figura- 
tive drawing, also carving and modeling in wood, marble, plaster, and pottery. 

(3) Machinists and engineers, course two years, Italian language, arithmetic, 
geometry, algebra, drawing, with practical work in machine shop and on stationary 
steam engines. 

(4) Firemen, cour.se one year, teaching by oral lessons of the construction and 
work of steam-engine boiler, with practical work on same. 

The first and second sections are day sessions, the third and fourth are evening 
sessious. At the Government exhibition of last summer, at Palermo, for work by 
schools of this class, several of the pupils received medals and prizes for their pro- 
ficiency. The school has a room for machine work fitted with lathes and other 
machinery, the power for which is furnished by their own engine, and it also fur- 
nishes the power for an electric plant for lighting the building. 

At Yolterra is a school known as the Industrial School of Volterra, but it is more 
properly a school of arts. The instructors teach geometrical, architectural, and fig- 
urative drawing, modeling in jilaster, and decorative painting. The age of admis- 
sion is 12, and the same requirements for admission are necessary as at Leghorn; 
length of course, four years. It has been in existence since the early part of this 
century, and is now supported as a free school by the State and municipality. 

Regarding the schools of this class at CaTrara, I quote Mr. Ulisse Boccacci, the 
consular agent, as follows : 

"The only educational school where an industrial and mechanical training is also 
given is the Scuola Industriale di Carrara, established in this city. It is one of the 
four similar schools of Italy. The other three are found at Agordo, Iglesias, and 
Caltanisetta. 

"The following are the studies taught at that school: Italian lauguage, history, 
and geography; English language, industrial design, mathematics, physics, and 
chemistry; topography and its applications, topographic design; meclianics, general 
and special; engineering design, mineralogy and geology, and quarry working. 

"The applicants can obtain admission by exhibiting a license of a Government 
technical school or an equal school (pareggiata). 

"The length of the course of training is two years, and, after having passed exam- 
ination, pupils may get a diploma of experts in mineralogy. 

"The school is public and without charge, and it is supported in equal proportion 
by the Government, the province, the municipality, and the Chamber of Commerce 
of Carrara. 

"It was founded in the year 1872, with the title of Industrial School. In 1885 it 
was remodeled, adding to the teaching mineralogy. 

"Carrara has, besides, an academy of fine arts, whore sculpture, architecture, and 
carving are taught. It Avas founded in the year 1769 by the Duchess of Esto, reign- 
ing at that time in this district. 

"The pupils are admitted at the age of 14 years by application made in writing 
by their fathers or governors, accompanied by necessary documents. 



566 EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. 

'•'The lengtli of tlie courses of training is from seven to ten years for scnlptnre 
and five years for architecture and ornaments. 

"The average number of loupils frequenting this school is about 250. 

'•'This school is likewise public and without charge, and it is entirely supported 
by the Government." 

The law regarding apprenticeship is very similar to that of the Kew England 
States. A minor, with the consent of his father or guardian, may in writing 
indenture himself with a party for a term of years to bo taught a trade. This, how- 
ever, is but seldom done now in this consular district. The agreements are usually 
oral when it is contemplated that the whole trade shall be learned from the same 
party, aud stipulate that for the first two years the apprentice receives no wages ; for 
the third ycivr he receives, perhaps, one-half franc (about 10 cents) a day, increased 
from year to year xintil at the end of seven years he will receive from 2 to 21 francs 
a day. The apprentice under this agreemeut bears his own expenses. The most of 
the trades in reality are learned by the minor from the beginning as an assistant cr 
general helper with some party, under whom he gradually acquires a knowledge 
of the trade, without any agreement between the parties for any special length of 
time. The learner may be employed by several persons before he masters the trade. 

CUKEENT EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS. ^ 

These movements iuclude the appointment of commissions to investi- 
gate the subject of school programmes and text-books and of physical 
culture. Then there have been discussions aijpertaining to manual 
training, to the x>romi)t payment of teachers' salaries, to increase of 
X^eusions for teachers, university reform movements, the more thorough 
education of women, the establishing of schools complementary to the 
elementary grades, the extension of obligatory school attendance to 
12 years of age, and the need of a more j)ractical education for life's 
duties. The subject of examinations for entrance to secondary schools 
has also been discussed, and the holding of the "licenza elementare" 
admits from State and private schools to secondary schools without 
other examinations. Students of gymnasia and lyceums receive the 
'4icenza liceale" from 1894 on, if they have earned it by completion of 
three or five years of study, with the cum laude additional to the pass- 
ing of the examinations. With the "licenza liceale" scholarshij^s are 
granted for further study in Eome or other prominent university cen- 
ters. The changes in the ministries^ may have modified the carrying 

1 Current events, historical data, and indices compiled by Miss Frances Graham 
French, specialist in the school systems of Northern and Eastern Europe. Authori- 
ties consulted: Bollettino Ufficiale del Ministcro dell' Istruzione Pubblica; U 
Nuovo Educatore; La Nuova Antologia; La Eassegna Nazionale; Kivista di Pedago- 
gia e Scienze Affari ; II Lavoro Manuale Educativo; La Questione Universitaria per 
Carlo Cantoni ; Sulla Liberta d' Insegnamento e di Studio nelle Universita per Carlo 
Cantoni; Atti Parlamentari ; Codice della Istruzione Pubblica; Nuovo Ulustrazioue 
c Commenti alle Leggi o Discipline sulla P. Istruzione; L'Instruction Publiquc en 
Italic par C. Hippeau; Revue Pedagogique; Revue Internationale de I'Enseigne- 
meut, etc., etc. 

"ilinisters since 1847: Cesare Alfieri di Sostegno, November 30, 1847, to March 10, 
18-18; Carlo Lou-Compagui di Mombello, March 16-July 29, 1848; Urbano Eattazi, 
July 29-August 4, 1848; Vincenzo Gioberti, August 4-16, 1848; Felice Merlo, August 
lG-27, 1848; Carlo Bon-Compagni di Mombello, August 29-December, 1848; Carlo 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 567 

out of tlieso various plans, but enougli lias been done to indicate tlie 
efforts toTvard educational i)rogress made by Italian statesmen. As 
far as can be ascertained, the educational movements which tend to 
become permanent bases of school operations are here noted. 

The heavy burden entailed upon the Italian Government by the effort 
to lieep the army on a war footing seemed to necessitate cutting down 
the budget in other directions; hence an effort was made to close sev- 
eral of the universities^ where there were but few students, and to 
bring those students to the largo university centers, such as iJ^aples, 
Turin, or Eome. In 1892-93 the Government eliminated from the 
budget the subsidies accorded to the free universities of Cameriuo, 
Ferrara, Urbiuo, and Perugia. The students at once revolted ,• local 
pride and tradition were touched; great opposition was developed, and 
every effort that has been made so far to change existing conditions in 
the universities has met with similar opi)osition. There were so few 
students at Macerata (264), Cagliari (201), Modena (381), Parma (385), 
Sassari (157), and Siena (229) that the Government's desire to supi:)ress 
them seems but natural, if it is considered that the intellectual and 
financial benefits accruing to the i)ublic are not sufficient to warrant 
their continuance. However, the strong objections raised in those 
university centers led to a lowering of the subsidies for all universities 
that year (1892-93). 

Cadorna, December 16j 1848, to jvlarcli 27, 1849; Christoforo Mameli, March 27, 
1849, to NoTemljer 10, 1850; Pietro Gioia, November 10, 1850, to October 20, 1851; 
Lnigi Carlo Farini, October 21, 1851, to May 21, 1852; Carlo Bon-Compagni cTi Mom- 
bello, May 21-November 4, 1852; Luigi Cibrario, November 4, 1852, to May 31, 1855; 
Giovanni Lanza, May 31, 1855, to October 18, 1858; Carlo Cadorna, October 18, 1858, 
to Jnly 19, 1859; Gabrio Casati, July 24, 1859, to January 15, 1860; Terenzio Maniani 
della Eovere, January 20, 1860, to Marcb 22, 18G1; Francesco De Sanctis, March 22, 
1861, to March 3, 1862; Pasquale Stanislao Mancini, March 3-31, 1862; Carlo Mat- 
teuci, March 31-December 7, 1862; Michele Amari, December 7, 1862, to September 

23, 1864; Giuseppe Natoli, September 23, 1864, to December 31, 1865; Domenico Berti, 
December 31, 1865, to February 17, 1867; Cesare Correuti, February 17- April 10, 
1867; Michele Coppiuo, April 10-October 27, 1867; Emilio Broglio, October 27, 1867, 
to May 13, 1869; Angelo Bargoni, May 13-December, 1869; Cesare Correnti, Decem- 
ber 14, 1869, to May 18, 1872; Quintiuo Sella, May 18-August 5, 1872; Antonio 
Scioloja, August 5, 1872, to July 10, 1873; Antonio Scioloja, July 10, 1873, to Febru- 
ary G, 1873; Girolamo Cantelli, February 7-September 6, 1874; Euggiero Bonghi, 
September 27, 1874, to March 24, 1876; Michele Coppiuo, March 25, 1876, to March 

24, 1878; Francesco Do Sanctis, March 24-December 19, 1878; Michele Coppino, 
December 19, 1878, to July 13, 1879 ; Francesco Paolo Perez, July 14-November 24, 
1879; Francesco De Sanctis, November 25, 1879, to January 1, 1881; Guido Baccelli, 
January 2, 1881, to March 29, 1884 ; Michele Coppino, March 30, 1884, to February 
16, 1888; Paolo Boselli, Febrnary 17, 1888, to February 8, 1891; Pasquale Villari, 
appointed February 9, 1891; Signer Martini, appointed May 15, 1892; Signer Gallo, 
appointed December 3, 1893; Guido Baccelli, appointed December 13, 1893. 

1 According to Signor Martini, the universities arc too numerous; there is defi- 
ciency in scientific appliances, and too great povcrtj' of endoAvment. The possible 
remedies include restrictions in right of conferring degTees, greater autonomy in the 
management of each university, and the suppression of a certain number. (Nuova 
Antologia, March 15, 1894.) 



568 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



Viiivcrsilics. 



Boloffna 

Cagliara 
Catania 
Genoa. . 
Messina 
Motion a 
Naples . 
Padua. . 
Palermo 



Previous 


In 1892-93. 






Lire. 


Lire. 


114,415 


108, 303 


2:!, 942 


22, 347 


C4, 854 


62, 164 


93, 562 


80, 405 


36, 300 


34, 470 


50, 290 


47, 961 


165, 100 


157, 474 


134, 983 


127, 256 


142, 375 


136, 137 



Universities. 

Parma 

Pavia 

Pisa 

Eomo 

Sassari 

Siena 

Turin 

Total 



Previous 
years. 



Lire. 

54, 523 

82, 100 
100,810 
194, 453 

21, 700 

55, 806 
120, 800 



al, 456, 014 



In 1892-93. 



Lire. 
51, 700 
77, 490 
94, 299 
185, 203 
20, 430 
53, 337 
114, 020 



al, 382, 000 



a Or, ill dollars, $281,010; $260,706; $14,364 decrease. 

There are doubtless other economies iii the budget outside of those 
for universities. The programme of studies in the Italian universities 
ranks with that of prominent universities of Europe and, as is stated 
by Professor Oldrini, "in several branches, such as legal jurisprudence 
and moral and economic social sciences, Italy holds a prominent place 
among them." The programmes of the universities and those of the 
special and suiierior institutes newly created within the last twenty 
years have been thoroughly modified according to the requirements of 
modern ideas and the advancement of sciences, literature, and arts. 
Among other things " sociology is taught in 10 universities and in 
several autonomous academies, and scientific pathological sociology 
forms a basis of treatment for the criminal.''' 

In 1891-92 the minister of public instruction, Signor Pasquale Vil- 
l;iri, introduced a bill in the Chamber of Deputies modifying the 
organization of provincial school administration and another bill reor- 
ganizing the higher council of education. According to these bills, the 
"provveditore" and the school council of each province are to have 
only the elementary schools under their charge, while a new officer, 
"provveditore dell' istruzione secondaria,"is to have charge of secondary 
education in the province. These officials are to reside in the cities of 
Turin, Milan, Padua, Bologna, Florence, Eome, Kaples, Bari, Palermo, 
and Cagliari. Each of these provveditore is to be assisted by a council 
for secondary education. The bill relative to the higher council of 
education reduces the number of its members from 3G to 21, who are to 
be appointed for six years, 4 of them going out each year, and thej^ will 
only be eligible for reelection after a year's interval. Of the 1 members 
to be appointed each year, 2 are to be chosen by the minister and 2 
others in turn designated (to the ministers) by the faculties of higher 
studies. It is somewhat doubtful whether these bills became laws, as 
Minister Villari was succeeded by Minister Martini in 1892 (May 15). 

Signor Yillari's successor submitted an elaborate and interesting pro- 
gramme of reforms in the educational organization of the Kingdom. 
He first proposed to establish a "scuola unica di cultara generale," to 
follow after an elementary school course of five years' duration. This 
institution is to combine some characteristics of the lower classes in the 
present "ginnasio" with studies in similar classes of technical schools. 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 569 

A tliree-years course is to serve as a preparatory course for practical 
life and for higher schools. The communes were expected to establish 
aud ill part maintain this "scuola unica," but, as with other schools, a 
State subsidy is desired. The course is to be somewhat elective, so that 
students may pursue the studies most suited to their needs. 

The statement has been made that in the reorganization of public 
school education the elementary has been sacrificed to that of second- 
ary instruction. One of the Italian deputies, Signor Gallo, considered 
that individuals are mistaken who yield to secondary education the 
same eHicacy as a means of educating the people as to elementary 
education. He also advocates a '' school complementary to the elemen- 
tary,'' where the i^upils may be prei)ared for life's duties and for the 
defense of the country. The reform movements tend, as different 
authorities indicate, to modify the traditional rigidity of Italian sec- 
ondary education and to introduce a more elastic and modern regime 
rather than to overturn the whole edifice. The figures indicate that 
the number of pupils in secondary schools has more than doubled 
within the last twenty years, and more progress is perceptible in these 
than in the elementary grades. Hence the greater effort to bring about 
reform movements in the elementary grades by the appointment of 
commissions to investigate their needs, for it is stated that the methods 
now employed in elementary grades tend toward "the arid process of 
mental exercises to the detriment of the development of the reasoning 
power and of the moral aims of education." In secondary school 
matters the discussions are, as in other countries, whether classical or 
a more practical education is necessary. The former acts as a discip- 
linary power, giving more intellectual force; the latter gives greater 
mastery over the material world and forms a stronger backbone to the 
nation. 

Signor Oavalotti, deputy, urges the doing away with the present cum- 
bersome school organization, the numerous officials, the surplus univer- 
sities, and that in place of so many '^ half- starved savants encumbering 
the social plane" there be established "practical training schools for 
citizens who will be of value to the nation." 

The commission appointed to revise the programmes of elementary 
studies presented the result of their labors to the minister of public 
instruction on November 22, 1894. The general regulations of the 
year 1888 were adhered to, but there were special recommendations 
concerning education and discipline in general. Complaint was made 
all over Italy of too many studies, and of those unsuited to the age 
of the child, and of too many daily exercises. The effort of the com- 
mission was to bring the studies, which are to be fewer in number, 
within the scope of the child's mind, and to reduce the number of 
hours a day in the classes. The subjects of study required for exami- 
nation are Italian (in which the child must give clear expression to his 
thoughts), penmanship, geography, arithmetic (the common rules), and 



570 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

history (local and general of Italy of past and present periods), and 
tlie duties of citizensliij). There are exercises in gymnastics, singing, 
and needlework, but discretionary powers are given to the teachers. 
Morals are taught by example rather than by any set lessons to the 
pupils. The higher problems of arithmetic are relegated to the sec- 
ondary schools. The programme covers the years to 10, and if still 
further elementary instruction is needed there are the Sunday and 
holiday schools. 

As an indication of the methods of study and recitations required in 
the elementary grades, the code of education is cited in x)art. Reforms 
now tend toward more simple methods : 

Frclimhiary i)isiniction. — In the elementary schools arithmetic must be tanght in a 
manner altogether practical. Let the master abstain from giving demonstrations 
■which would, not be understood at that tender age. Let him limit himself to 
impressing well on the minds of the j)upils the definitions and the working of the 
"four rules," and to seo that they are worked expeditiously and without hesitation. 

When the teacher proposes concrete problems the questions proposed must bo 
most simple, so that the pujiils may readily perceive the counection between the 
requirements of the problem and the particular oiierations required for its solution. 

To teach what little is requisite of the notation of vulgar fractions let the teacher 
begin by exiilainiug with precision the meaning of the fractions I, ^, J, A, etc., and 
let him subsequently cause the jiupils to construct tables of the multiples of these 
fractions. 

From such tables will naturally follow the notions of proper and improper frac- 
tions, aud of mixed numbers, the idea of composite numbers, and the rule for 
converting an improper fraction into a mixed number, and vice versa. 

In teaching the rule of three let the teacher's principal aim be to communicate to 
his pxxpils a sure criterion for distinguishing the cases to which this rule applies. 

First year. — Mental exercise in addition and subtraction. Reading and writing of 
Arabic figures. 

Second year. — Numeration and notation of numbers with several digits. Addition 
and subtraction of integers. Multiplication by integers. 

Third year. — Division of integers. The four rules with decimals. Definition and 
free-hand drawing of the most important geometrical figures. The metric system. 
Solution of simple problems with concrete numbers. 

Fourth year. — Meaning of a fraction. Proper and improper fractions and mixed 
numbers. luterconversion of fractions. Reduction of an iraprojier fraction to a 
mixed number, and vice versa. Conversion of a vulgar fraction to a decimal. Rule 
of three by unitary method. Applications. 

A. — FIRST CLASS (LOWER SECTION). 

Italian lanynagc. — Graduated exercises in formation of syllables, analyzing words 
selected for that x^urposc aud exj)lained. Formation of letters, sj^llables, and words 
by imitation. Writing from dictation words of simple syllables. Graduated lessons . 
in reading and in correct pronunciation. Exiilanation of words and sentences read. 
Writing froui copy or dictation. 

Orthography. — Memory exercises. 

B. — SECOND CLASS. 

Italian language. — Reading with ease and intelligence, with explanation of the 
matter read. Dictation and orthography. Graduated exercises in calligraphy. 
Farts of apeecli. — Conjugation of auxiliary verbs aud of regular verbs by means of 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 571 

aeuteuces carefully selected to inculcate moral trutlis and to illustrate rules of 
grammar. Elementary knowledge of analysis. Short and easy composition by 
imitation exercises on the nomenclature of objects in daily use. 

C. — THIKI) CLASS. 

Ilalian language. — Reading, witb explanation of the matter read. Declension of 
nouns and adjectives. Conjugation of irregular and defective Aerbs. Use of the 
parts of speech and oral exercises in grammatical analysis. Periods and punctua- 
tion. Graduated exercises of composition. Short tales, easy descriptions, letters. 
Exercises in nomenclature of objects in domestic use, of trades and arts. 

Prorjressive exercises in caUigrapliy . — Memory exercises. 

D. — FOURTH CLASS. 

Italian language.— Hesaling, with explanation of the matter read. Usual grammar 
and exercises. Composition. Tales from the history of Italy, fables, descriptions, 
letters on various subjects. Nomenclature of objects in domestic use, of trades 
and arts. 
Frogressive exercises in caUigraplig.—'^lemovy exercises. 

In the teaching of geography attention is called to geography of the lirst three 
classes in the gymnasium. This study must be directed to a double purpose: First, 
to give to the students (and especially those who Avill not attend the higher classes) 
an elementary but complete knowledge of the earth, and particularly of Italy; and, 
secondly, to bo auxiliary to the study of history. 

That the knowledge of the earth may be, albeit elementary, yet complete, it must 
comprise mathematical, astronomical, physical, and political geography. But in all 
this, having regard to the nature of the science and to the tender age of the pupils, 
it is' necessary that the professor should proceed Avith foresight in the selection of 
the matter to be taught, dwelling on principles, and illustrating them in such a 
manner as to render them clear t-o the intelligence of the students, taking care, 
hov.-ever, that the popular explanations and illustrations which he makes use of do 
not militate against scientilic explanations ; and further, that ho should not sub- 
stitute some mere practical process for one thoroughly scientific, since frequently 
it is the case that, to understand or remember a fact better, it seems advantageous 
to communicate extrinsic facts, rather than to thoroughly investigate their intrinsic 
nature and their correlation to each other. 

This premised, the study of geography is divided as follows: 

First c?ass.— General notions of astronomical, topographical, physical, and political 
geography. Detailed geography of Italy. 
Second c7ass.— -Geography of the Old World. 

Third c?ass.— Geography of America and Australia. Systeuiatic recapitulation. 
That the teaching may bo easy, efficacious, and most fruitful it must bo given 
viva voce, with no other help but the artificial globe and maps. 

The student should imprint on his mind the form of the earth, her parts, and 
principal subdivisions and phenomena (accident!), and the political arrangement in 
outline. 

The reading o( the programmes for the higher schools of the King- 
dom suggest, among other things, the advantage which teachers in 
Italian schools enjoy with regard to the teaching of history. In no 
other country ^ can the course of universal history be so easily and 
naturally combined with the history of the nation, while the distinction 



1 We quote from a writer in the Loudon Journal of Education, April 1, 1891. 



572 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

between aiicieut and modern is to a great extent obliterated by the 
continuity of Eome. The history programme for the higher schools 
marks oft iive periods: (1) Greek history; (2) Eoman history, from 
the origin of Eome to the fall of the Western Empire; (3) history of 
Europe, with si^ecial reference to Italy, from the fall of the Western 
Emxjire to the discovery of America; (4) from the discovery of America 
to the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle; (5) from the treaty of Aix-la-Chai)elle 
to the death of Victor Emmanuel. 

In Italy also the question of gymnastics lias attracted much atten- 
tion, and a commission has lately i^resented its report ou the princi];)les 
to be followed in teaching them, or, rather, in training masters and 
mistresses to teach them, in the normal schools of gymnastics which 
are already established at Eome, Naples, and Turin. The report i^ro- 
nounces for a combination of gymnastics with apparatus, and natural 
gymnastics, i. e., athletics and games. The programme for the training 
of teachers includes such instruction in anatomy and physiology as is 
necessary for mastering the theory of the subject. Practical gymnastics 
are to include various athletic exercises and games, swimming (for both 
sexes), and single-stick and some sword exercises (for boys). 

According to the report in regard to "Educazione fisica nelle scuole," 
j)ublished in the Bollettino UfQciale delFTstruzione x>ubblica, November 
80, 1893, the commission for the study of physical training desires to 
formulate regulations which will tend to form healthy and robust men 
as useful citizens and prepared to defend the country in moments of 
peril. Stress is laid upon the care that teachers should have in regard 
to the use of apparatus unsuited to youths under 14 years of age, and 
special care must be taken in these exercises as to tlie overuse of gym- 
nastics by girls of any age. Teachers are to be thoroughly trained in 
the use and abuse of gymnastics, or there can iiever be a rational 
application of such exercivses. Buildings or rooms should be large and 
well ventilated, to be useful for purjioses of physical training. The 
president of the commission, Signor F. Todaro, suggests that a perma- 
nent commission be appointed for the study and supervision of physical 
training, and that the numerous Italian gymnastic societies (more than 
100) be encouraged to form a sort of federation, to place their courses 
before the minister of public instruction, to join with the commission 
in developing the best methods for i^hysical culture, and that subsidies 
be granted to promote the extension of physical tra-ining. He hopes 
that playgrounds may be established, athletic games encouraged, row- 
ing, climbing mountains, riding, and in fact that everything pertaining 
to the development of the body may be encouraged by the authorities. 
The commission does not suggest the introduction of military training 
into the schools, but limits itself to such training as would naturally 
come under the heading of gymnastics or physical training, so as to 
strengthen the body, accustom the youth to endure fatigue, expand the 
chest, make the body obedient to his will; all this will act as a disci- 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 573 

plinary force aud aid in making good soldiers wlien tlie time comes for 
entering tlie army. 

Tlie first national congress for the study of the subject of manual 
training was held in Ripatrausone in Sei^tember, 1889, and that city (in. 
the Picine territory, 30 or 40 miles south of Ancona) is now recognized 
as the center for the diffusion of manual training throughout Italy, as 
the school established there is a summer normal school for manual 
training. The gradual ingrafting of this phase of education ux)on the 
school system of Italy may be best understood by extracts from a letter 
of Professor Paroli to the teachers of Italy, which appeared as the pre- 
face to "Priucipi Fondamentali del Lavoro Manualo Educativo" (the 
Italian edition of Otto Salomon's lectures on manual training). First 
it may be stated that in 1887 the Italian Government sent IG male 
teachers to XiiJis, in Sweden, to study in the summer manual training 
course there, and the result of their study was to interest prominent 
men of Italy in the subject of sloyd. 

Professor Paroli says : 

In our own country tlio work of Ilerr Salomon lias found many imitators, who 
liavo been more courngeons and intelligent than fortunate. Professor Tegon at 
Eome, the coadjutor of Pastorello, Borgna at Turin, Frascara at Genoa, Professor 
Pasquali at Brescia and Assizi, Professor Consorti, at first with Sutto and Pastorcllo, 
afterwards with Pasquali at Ripatransone, have started experiments Avhich, when 
completed, will be attended with good results. But some maintain that these experi- 
ments have not yet produced the truo manual scholastic work — i. e., the work that 
might bo taught in our elementary schools with brilliant results, judged from the 
didactic, educational, aud hj^gienic point of view. I do not attempt to iironounce 
judgment, the more so becauso I have not been able to compare with my own eyes 
the results of the various experiments that I have mentioned above. But from what 
I have been able to see and from what has been told mo I believe that in each of 
these attcm]its there has been a satisfactory harvest of practical results. 

The minister of public instruction has therefore decided to give a certain stimulus 
to fresh efforts, by arranging for a number of teachers from tho royal normal schools 
to go and attend the autumn courses held at llipatransono, which has now become 
the center of tho movement for tho diffusion of manual instruction in our country. 
Wo may therefore expect that tho experiment will continue, being sure that when 
these new masters know how to give manual instruction according to precise rules, 
it will, without further delay, form part of tho curriculum of our elementary schools, 
which will then, and then only, have acquired tho character of national schools, or 
schools for the people. During tho last few years, too, a new branch of scholastic 
literature has been started amongst us — that which treats especially of manual 
instruction. In this branch the publications of Gabelli, Villari, and Latino cer- 
tainly occupy the first place, but the accounts that Professors Pick, Tegon, Gabrielli, 
Borgna, and others have published on the work of tho Italian commission are also 
worth perusal. And worthj' of mention, too, arc the works of Professors Goldfarelli, 
Pastorcllo, Pasquali, and others on the important subject of educational work. A 
monthly journal, II Lavoro J,Ianuale, has been published for some time at Milan, but 
the efforts of its manager and editor have not met, amongst the Italian scholastic 
public, with the favor they have deserved — an evident sign that the subject is for 
tho most part premature. 

I do not venture to ask myself Avhat reception tho scholastic jiublic will give the 
work of Herr Salomon. I conjecture that it will at least be discussed and that from 



574 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

tliis disciission the champions of manual ■work, who are not Trauting even in Italy, 
if they take advantago of it TTill come out strengthened and ■n'ill see an increase 
of tlieir forces, -which at present, however courageous they may he, are scanty in 
numbers. *' « * i 

The present minister of i)u'blic instruction, Comm. Guido Baccelli, is 
so mucli interested in manual training as an educative force that lie 
has ofifered prizes to those teachers who introduce it into their schools 
and has made it an obligatory study in the i)ractice department of the 
normal .schools. Detailed statistics are to be required at close of the 
year. Two hours a week must be devoted to this study. The normal 
course^ at Ripatrausone opens on August 28 and closes on September 
27. The regular programme includes (a) Froebelian exercise and exer- 
cises preparatory to feminine handiwork ; (&) complete course in card- 
board work as applied to elementary geometry; (c) course in potters' 
clay work; {d) zinc and iron work; (e) work in wood. In 1893 there 
were 34 men and 34 women teachers frequenting the course. Several of 
these teachers received Government subsidies to aid them in the study 
of manual training, but 7 men and 27 women teachers paid their own 
exiDcnses rather than not to have the training. The men devote forty- 
five hours a week to manual-training work (twelve for wood, twelve for 
iron, twelve for paper, and nine for clay work); the womeu forty-two 
hours a week (twelve for Froebel exercises, twelve for feminine handi- 
work, nine for geometic work in cardboard, and nine for clay work). 
Examinations are held on September 23 and 24, and on September 25 
and 2G there is a public exhibition of the objects comjoleted in the 
course; these number from 100 to 120 for each man teacher, and from 
120 to 150 for each woman teacher. Representations of the success of 
this work are made by the director to the minister of i^ublic instruc- 
tion. The director requests continued subsidies to teachers, and also 
to district inspectors, so that they may interest themselves in having 
manual training introduced into the elementary schools of their dis- 
tricts. He also suggests the beginning of a library for manual-training 
literature. 

Several times within the last ten or fifteen years projects have been 
formed combining Italian teachers in some sort of general association. 
To promote this end a congress was summoned to meet at Milan on the 
3d of September, 1894. The meeting, presided over by Professor Rho, 
of Turin, was attended by about 500 men and women teachers. It was 
decided that complete organization could only be obtained by means of 
district federation, and a vote was passed in favor of the immediate 
formation of Lombardian Federation. A committee of G was nomi- 
nated to draft a constitution of a great national federation of all 
teachers to be presented at the next Italian teachers' association. Later 
developments will be watched with interest. 

' From J. S. Thornton in London Journal of Education of August 1, 1894, pp. 431-433. 
^Bollettino Ufficialo del Ministro dell' Istruzioue Puhhlica, February 1, 1893. 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 575 

A decree of Minister Baccelli, dated September 5, 189d, in favor of 
pedagogical conferences, ordered tlie holding of ten-day sessions — Sep- 
tember 20 to 30 — in tbe cities of Bari, Bologna, Brescia, Cagliari, 
Florence, Genoa, Milan, Naples, Palermo, Tnrin, and Venice. All 
teachers and ofiBLcials connected with elementary edncation were 
expected to be present at the discussions to be held publicly. Aca- 
demic discourses are not to be held, but opportunities are to be given 
to the majority of those xiresent to enter upon a discussion of questions 
of general educational interest. 

A congress (the third) of "Eicreatori" was held in Genoa in 1894, 
which body has for its object the study of the best means of amelio- 
rating the condition of the masses, the " Kicreatori" to be an ally of the 
school, and to form a link between the home and school. 

A congress of educators was held in Eome, September 21 to 23, 1895, 
the day after the anniversary of the entrance of the troops into Home. 
The resolutions adopted were that ''the elementary schools be made 
dependent on the State; that obligatory instruction be extended to 12 
years of age, and that the instruction include the whole elementary school 
programme; that all children of public and private schools be obliged to 
pass a i)ublic examination ; that the law regarding children at work in 
factories be carried out, as far as it appertains to obligatory instruction, 
under penalty of fines imposed on employers; that a continuation school 
be established either for Sundays or eveniugs to prepare young people 
for civil life who have passed the obligatory school age, and that they be 
obliged to remain in it until the twentieth year of age; that instruction 
have a scientific basis and be given according to natural methods; that 
in religion the schools be absolutely neutral; that patriotism be incul- 
cated; that the school programme be so reformed as to make the 
teaching of history a central i)oint toward civic education; that the 
hours of study be made uniform in all schools; that people's libraries be 
established everywhere, so that there may be an extension of the study 
of national history and other useful knowledge; that the moral and 
material conditions of teachers be ameliorated, and the minimum of 
salary be 1,200 francs ($232); that no difference be made in salary 
given to teachers of upper or lower classes between men and women." 

In the early x^art of 1895 an international congress for children was 
to be held in riorence. The questions to be discussed were the advance- 
ment of the physical, moral, and mental condition of children, the care 
of deaf, dumb, and blind children until they are old enough to enter an 
institution, the care of poor, abandoned children, and the establishment 
of children's hospitals. 



576 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 



SCIENTIFIC AND PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS. 

In December, 1891, Mr. Augustus O. Bourn, cousul-geueral of the 
Uiiited States to Italy, furuislied this office with a list of academies, 
scientific institutions, libraries, etc., \vitliin the consular district of 
Rome. 

This list is as follows: 



Title. 



Accadeniia Eeale tlei Lincei (scientific 

ami literary). 
Accaclemia Kealo di Mcdicijia di Roma 

(scientific). 



Accademia degli Arcadi (literary) . 



Location. 



Home . 
do 



Accadeniia Tiberina (literary) 

Accaderaia dei Nuovi Liucci (scientitic 

and literary). 

Accademia di.Francia (fine arts) 

As.sociazioEo Medica Italiana (medical) - . . 
Associazione i'armacentica Nazionalo 

(pbariuacentical). 
Associazione Nazionalc di Medici Comu- 

iiali (medical). 
Collegio Cbimico-Farmaceutico di Eoma 

(chemical and pharmaceutical). 

Comitato Medico Romano (medical) 

Associazione Kazionale dei "Kagionieri 

Italiani" (auditors). 

Collegio dei "Ragionicri " (anditors) 

Societal degli Ingegneri ed Architetti 

Italiani (engineering and architecture). 
Societ:\ Italiani di Mediciua Interna 

(medical). 
Societa Italiana di Chirnrgia (surgical) . . 
Socicti\ Italiana di Dermatologia e Sitilo- 

grafla (medical). 
Society Fouografica Italiana (phono- 
graphical). 
Societri Stenografica Centrale Italiana 

(stenographical). 

Societal Lancisiana degli Ospedali di 

Eoma (medical). 
Istituto Storico Italiauo (historical) 



Realo Societ;\ Eomana di Storia Patria 
(historical) . 

Eealo SocietiY Didascalica Italiana (didac- 
tical). 

Associazione fra gl' Inseguanti primari 
d' Italia (educational). 

Societ<\ per la Istruzione Seieatifico-let- 
terario o Morale della Donna (edixca- 
tional). 

Societ.T, Litteraria dei Cattolici Todeschi 
(literary). 

Accadeniia Iiigleso di Belle Arti (fine arts) . 

Accademia Belga (fine arts) 

Accademia di Spagna di Eello Arti (fine 
arts). 

Inaigne Accademia Eomana di Belle A rti 
denominata di San Luca (fine arts). 

Eegia Accademia di Santa Cecilia (musi- 
cal). 



Eeal Accademia Filarmonica. Eoma (mu- 
sical). 
Societ.a Orchestrate Eomana (musical) . . . 



Societ.'i del Qniiitetto (musical) , 

Collegio e Scuola (rrogoriaua (musical) 



....do 



-do 
-do 



-do .. 
-do .. 
-do .. 



-do 

.do 



.do 
.do 

-do 
-do 

.do 

-do 
-do 

.do 

-do 

.do 
.do 

-do 
-do 
.do 
.do 

.do , 

-do 

.do. 

.do 

.do 



-do.... 



.do .... 

-do .... 

.do.... 
.do.... 



Ho^- supported or patronized. 



By the GoTcrnment to the extent of 

"100,000 lire («) per year. 
By its own endowment, with additional 

annual subsidies of 2,000 lire from the 

municipality, and 5,500 lire from the 

Government. 
By its own endowments and patronage of 

the Pope. 
Do. 
Do. 

By the French Government. 
Entirely by contributions of its membera. 
Do. 



Do. 

Do. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Do. 

Do. 

By the contributions of its members, and 
an additional annual subsidy of 500 lire 
by tlie municipality. 

Entirelj- by contributions of members. 

By the Government to the extent of 10,000 
lire annually, and by contributions of 
members. 

By its endowments, and a subsidy of 2,000 
lire annually from the Government. 
Do. 

Entirely by the con tribu tions of members. 

Do. 



By its own endowments and contributions 

of its members. 
By the British Government. 
By the Belgian Government. 
By the Spanish Government. 

By its own endowments. 

With annual Government subsidy of 
40,000 lire, v.'itli annual subsidies of 
30,000 from the municipality and 5,000 
from the province. 

Partly by endowments and partly by con- 
tributions of members. 

Entirely by contributions of membera 
and proceeds of its concerts. 
Do. 

By its endowments and tuition paid by 
"students. 



a The lira is 19.3 cents in value. 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 



577 



Title. 



Consregazioni Artist ica dei Virtuosi al 

Pantheon (musical). 
Studio Pabbrica di Mosaici (mosaics) 



Studio Fabbrica di Arazzi (tapestry) 

liegio Islituto di Eelle Arti iu Koma (iine 

arts). 
Kegia Calcografla (engraying) 



Accademia Pontificia di Archeologia (ar- 
cheology). 

Societti itomana d' lucoraggiamento per 
gli Artisti (line arts). 

Associaziouo Artistica luternazionale 
(fine arts). 

Socioti\ degli Amatori o cultori di Belle 
Arti (fine arts). 

Societii degli Acquarellisti (fine arts) 

Associaziono degli Amatori di JTotograiia 
in lloma (photographical). 

Socict;i Musicale llomana (musical) 



Societii Itali.ana delle Scieuze dctto dei 
xl (scientific). 

Societii Geologiea Italiana (geological)... 

Comitato Geologico d' Italia (geological).. 

Societii Gcogralica Italiana (geographi- 
cal). 



Location. 



Homo . 
....do. 



Societii Arclicologica Anglo-Americana 

(arclieological). 
Imperiale Istituto Archeologico Germa- 

r.ico (arclieological). 
l5cole I'raucaise deliome (archeological).. 
Associaziouo della Starapa Periodica iu 

Italia (press association). 
Regia Universita di Koma 



TJniversitii Israelitica di Roma. 
Regia TJniversitii di Cagliari. . . 



Regia TJniversitii di Sassari. . . 
Regia TJniversitii di Macerata. 



TJniversitii di Perugia 
TJniversitii di TJrbino . 



TJnivcr.sitii di Camerino 

Regia Istituto di Marina Mercantile. 



Regio Istituto Tecnico. 
Regio Istituto Tocnico. 



Regio Istituto di Marina Mercantile. 



Regia Scuola Normale 

Regia Scuola IS'ormale 

Regia Scuola Normalo 

Regia Scuola Normale 

Regia Scuola Normale 

Regia Scuola di Applicazione per gl' In- 

generi. 
Regio Liceo Ginnasio TJmbertoI 



Regio Liceo Ginnasio Ferenzio Mamiaui. 



Regio Liceo e Ginnasio Quirino Visconti. 
Regio Istituto Tecnico Leonardo da Vinci 



Regio Istituto Snperioro di Magistcro 
Femminilo. 

Istituto Araldico 

Istituto Marchi d' Istruzionc cou convitto. 
Collegio di Santa Maria , 



ED 95- 



-19 



-do. 
.do. 

.do, 

-do. 

.do , 

-do , 

-do 

.do , 
.do 

.do 

.do , 

.do, 
-do , 
.do , 

.do 

-do 

.do 
.do 

.do 



do .. 

Cagliari 



Sassari .., 
Macerata 



Perugia. 
Tirbiuo . 



Camerino , 
Cagliari... 



Perugia. .. 
Camerino. 



Ancona . 



Ancona 

Pesaro 

Macerato 

Ascoli-Piceno. 

TJrbino 

Rome 



.do 

.do 

.do 
-do 



.do 
.do 
.do 



How supported or patronized. 



By its endoAYiucnts and tuition paid by 
students. 

Bj' its own endowments and jiatronageof 
the Pope. 
Do. 

By the Govcruiuent to the extent of 79,500 
lire per year. 

By the Government to the extent of lG,uOO 
lire annually. 

By its endowments and patronage of the 
Pope. 

Entirely by the contributions of its mem- 
bers. 
Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Do. 

By proceeds of its concerts and contri- 
butions of members. 
By its own endowments. 

Do. 
Do. 
By the Government, with 50,000 lire an- 
nually, and by contributions of mem- 
bers. 
Entirely by contributions of members. 

By the German Government. 

By the French Government. 

By the contributions of members. 

By the Government, with 1,0S5,09G lire 

annually. 
By endowments. 
By the Government, with 162,818 lire per 

year. 
By the Government, with 143,403 lire per 

year. 
By its own endowments and an annual 

Government subsidy of 25,811 lire per 

year. 
By its own endowments. 
By its own endowments and an annual 

Government subsidy of 1,723 lire per 

year. 
By its own endowments. 
By appropriations from the Government, 

varying from year to year. 
Do. 
Bv the municipality and the province to 

"the extent of 8,334 lire and 5,000 lire 

respectively. 
By appropriations from the Government, 

varying from year to year. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
By the Government to the e:;tcnt of 106,- 

936 lire per year. 
By the Government, variable appropria- 
tions, and by the nmnicipalitj' 13,000 

lire per annum. 
By the municipality, with 4,000 lire per 

annum, and variable appropriations 

from the Government. 
By appropriations from the Government, 

varying from j'oar to year. 
By the municipality, with 8,000 lire per 

annum, besides variable appropriations 

from the Government. 
By appropriations from the Government, 

varying I'rora year to year. 
By its own endowment. 
By the tuition of its students. 
By the tuition of its students and tho 

patronage of the Pope. 



578 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



Scuola Commercialo Femminile. 
Istituta ilassimo con convitto.. 



Istituto Ponteficio di Alta Letteratura . . . 

Istituto TecuicoF. S. DeMerode 

Liceo c Ginnasio di San Pietro in Vaticano 
Liceo Ginnasio del Seuiinario Ponteficio . . 

Istituto AngeloEomano 

Educandati diretto dalle Dame del S. C. . . 



Gould ilemorial Home. 



Scuola Preparatoria alle Arti Ornamentali 

Scuola Superioro reiuminile "Fua Fusi- 
nato." 

Kep;ia Souola Tecnica Femminile "Mari- 
anna Dionizi.'' 

Scuola Professionalo Communalo Fem- 
minile. 

Scuola Professionale Femminile " Teresa 
Chigi Torlonia." 



Collegio Convitto Provinciale 

Collcgio Convitto " Angelo Mai" 

Collegio Ghislieri 

Collegio Nazareno 

Ospizio Margherita di Savoia (profes- 
sional instruction). 
Ospizio di Termini (professional school) . . 

Ospizio di San Michele (professional 
schools). 

Societa Orticola Romana 

Societa Generale dei Titicultori Italiani. . 

Eesia Scuola Pratica di Agricoltura 

Biblioteca Alessandriua della Kegia Uni- 
versity. 

Biblioteca Angelica 



Biblioteca Barberina 

Biblioteca Casanatense . 



Biblioteca Cbigiana 

Biblioteca Corsiniana 

Biblioteca Frankliniana 

Biblioteca Lancisiana 

Biblioteca dell' Accademiadi Santa Cecilia 



Biblioteca Eomana-Santi 



Biblioteca Vallicelliana . 
Biblioteca Vaticana 



Biblioteca Vittorio Emannuele. 



Biblioteca del llinistero degli Atfari 

Esteri. 
Biblioteca del Ministero d" Agricoltura, 

Indnstria e Commercio. 
Biblioteca del Ministero di Grazia e Gius- 

tizia. 
Biblioteca del Ministero dei Lavori 

Pubblici. 

Biblioteca del Ministero delle Finanze 

Biblioteca del Ministero della Marina 

Biblioteca del Ministero della Guerra 

Biblioteca del Ministero dell' Interne 

Biblioteca delle Direzione Generale di Sta- 

tistica. 
Biblioteca dell' Universiti di Macerata. . . 

Biblioteca dell' Universita Israelitica 

Biblioteca dell' Universita di Cagliari . . . 

Biblioteca dell' Universita di Sassari 

Biblioteca dell' Universita di Perugia 

Biblioteca deir Universita di Urbino 

Biblioteca dell' Universita di Camerino . . , 



Location. 



Home . 
do 



.do 
.do 
.do 
-do 
.do 
.do 

.do 

-do 

.do 

-do 

-do 

.do 



-do 
.do 
.do 
-do 
.do 

-do 



.do 
-do 
-do 
.do 

-do 

.do 
.do 

-do 
.do 
-do 
-do 
.do 



-do 

-do 
.do 

.do 

-do , 

-do 

-do 

.do 

-do 
-do 



-do 
.do 



Macerata . 



Home 

Cagliari 



Sassari ... 
Perugia .. 
Urbino ... 
Camerino . 



How supported or patronized. 



By the municipality to the extent of 

17,300 lire per annum. 
By the tuition of its students and the 
patronage of the Pope. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
By the tuition of the students. 
By the tuition of its students and patron- 
age of the Pope. 
By its own endowment and private con- 

tribvitions. 
By the m unicipality to the extent of 14, 600 

lire per year. 
By the municipality to the extent of 33,840 

lire per year. 
By its own endowment and partly by the 

tuition of students. 
By the municipality to the extent of 46,960 

lire per year. 
By its own endowments, with an additional 
subsidy from the municipality of 11,100 
lire per year. 
By the tuition of the student. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
By its own endowment. 

By the raiinicipality to the extent of 

295,000 lire per annum. 
By its own endowment. 

By the contributions of the members. 
Do. 

By the Comizio Agrario at Home. 

By the Government to the extent of 17,000 
"lire i)er annum. 

By the Government to the extent of 5,400 
lire per annum. 

By its own endowment. 

By the Government to the extent of 17,000 
lire per annum. 

By the family whose name it bears. 
' Do. 

By private contributions. 

By the Lancisiana Society. 

By the Accademia di Santa Cecilia, with 
"an additional subsidy from the Govern- 
ment of 1,500 lire per annum. 

By its own endowment, with additional 
subsidy of 4,900 lire from the munici- 
pality.' 

By its own endowments. 

By appropriations from the Pope, vary- 
ing from j-ear to year. 

By the Government to the extent of 
100,000 lire per annum. 

By a yearly approiiriation of 6,000 lire 
from' the Government. 

By a yearly appropriation of 8,000 lire 
from' the Government. 

By the Government with 6, COO lire yearly. 

By the Government with 5,700 lire yearly. 

By the Government with 8,000 lire yearly. 
By the (lovernment with 7,000 lire yearly. 
By the Government with appropriations 

varying from year to year. 
By the Government with5, 000 lire yearly. 
By the Government with 2,000 lire yearly. 

By a part of the appropriation made to 

'the university by tlie Government. 
By the university bearing the same name. 
By a part of the Government appropria- 
tion made to the university. 
Do. 
By the university. 
Do- 
Do. 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 



579 



110^7 supported or patronized. 



Mnsro Capitolino e di Scultiira 

Museo Capitolino Etrusco Pinacoteca o 
Piotomoteca. 

Museo Lateranense Sacro o Profane 

Miiseo Vaticano Etrusco-Egizio 

Museo Artistico Industriale 



Museo d'Istruziono o di Edncazione. 

Museo IJuoncompagui-Liidovisi 

Museo Torlonia 

Museo Eorgliese 

Museo Kisclieriano 

Museo Preistorico-Etnografico 



Museo Borgiano 

Museo Nazionalo di Antichita Romane. 



Mnsco Copernicano ed Astronomico 

Museo dei Gessi 

Galleria Vaticana 

Galleria Capitolina 

Galleria Albani 

Galleria Barberini 

Galleria Borgheso 

Galleria Colonna 

Galleria Corsini 

Galleria Doria 

Galleria Lateranense 

Galleria di San Luca 

Galleria del Monte di Pietii 

Galleria Rospigliosi 

Galleria Tenerani 

Galleria Chigi 

Galleria Mattel 

Galleria del Quirinale 

Galleria Spada 

Galleria Torlonia. .- 

Galleria dell' Istitui o di Bello Arti 

Galleria e Museo dell' Univeraiti do Pe- 
rugia. 



Rome . 
do 



-do . 
-do , 
.do 

-do. 
-do . 
-do 
.do , 
.do , 
.do . 

.do . 
-do . 

.do 
.do. 
.do . 
-do. 
-do . 
.do . 
-do. 
.do. 
.do , 
.do . 
.do. 
.do , 

-do 



do .. 

do .. 

do .. 

do .. 

do .. 

do .- 

do .- 

Urbino . 

Perugia. 



By tbe municipality to tlie extent of 37,500 
' lire yearly. 

Bv admission fees. 
" Do. 

By a yearly appropriation of 10,000 lire 

from the municii)ality. 
By the University of ilomo. 
By the family wlioso name it bears. 

Do. 

Do. 
By its ovrn endowments. 
By a yearly appropriation of 7,500 lire 

from tho Government. 
By its own endowments. 
By a yearly appropriation of 20, 000 lire 

from the Government. 
By its own endowments. 

^ Do. 
By admission fees. 

Do. 
By the family whoso name it bears. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
By admission fees. 
By the Accademia di San Luca. 
By its own endowments. 
By the family whose name it bears. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
By its own endowments. 
By the family whoso name it bears. 

Do. 
By tho Istituto di Belle Arti. 
By the TJniversity of Perugia. 



mejiorable dates. 

The territory known to-day as Italy lias been subjected to the domi- 
nation of Spaiii, France, and Austria at different x)eriods of its history. 
Spanish rule x^redominated during the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
turies j Austrian at the beginning of the eighteenth; the French vic- 
tories changed the Government between 1797 and 1814; Austrian rule 
was reestablished in 1811. In 1848 the Milanese and Venetians joined 
Piedmont; in 1859 the Austrians lost their hold, and tho Kingdom of 
Italy, comj)rising Piedmont, Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Modcua, 
Parma, the Eomagna, Naples, and Sicil}^, was formed. In 1806 Venetia 
was ceded to Italy by Austria, and the kingdom was consummated, 
with Pome as it capital, in 1870. 

In the IMiddle Ages and during the Eenaissance Italy was the most 
brilliant center of literature and art in Europe. From the sixteenth 
to the eighteenth century, however, i)opular education — if one exceiits 
a few celebrated institutions — was not greatly develoi^ed. The minis- 
ters and princes of tho eighteenth century, animated with a spirit of 
reform, opened schools, notably the Emx^eror Joseph II, in Lombardy, 
by edict of 1780. During the period 1797-1814, when political affairs 
brought Italy and France more closely together, the obligation of main- 
taining elementary schools was imx)osed upon the communes of the 
Cisalpine Pepublic (1802) and the Kingdom of Naples. The fall of the 



580 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

Frencli Empire paralyzed educational efforts. Later, liberal ideas 
inspired the law of 1819 in the JSTeapolitan realm, tlie school regulations 
of 1818 in the Lombard- Yenetian Kingdom, the decree of 1822 in the 
Sardinian States, which required each commune to maintain a gratuit- 
ous elcmentai'y school. The most memorable dates from the educational 
standpoint are the following : 

1729 aiid 1772. Establishment of famous royal constitutions by princes of tbo House 
of Savoy tlirougli wliicli tlie control of secondary education was taken away 
from tlie religions orders, and the Collegio dello Province, with one hundred 
free scholarshii^s, was established with the aim of preparing, in connection 
with the university, teachers qualified to give this instruction. Schools of 
methods were established to prej»are teachers for primary schools, and with 
the title of Magistrato della Riforma the germ of a well- organized council of 
public instruction aj>peared. 

1786. Reorganization of rural schools in Lombardy, the decree stipulating for free 
schools for the poor. 

1802. Sub-Alpine republics decreed that all communes shoiild establish elementary 
schools. 

1808. Schools reorganized in jiarts of Italy under French domination. Academies 
established at Turin, Genoa, and Pisa as integral parts of the University of 
Franco. 

1813. Reorganization of public instruction in Rome. 

1818. New school law promulgated in the Lombardian- Venetian Kingdom wliich in 
1822 became the code of education for that i^art of Italy. 

1814. Establishment of "Asilid' Infancia" (infant schools) in Piedmont, wiiich were 

the beginning of the well-organized school system. 
1847. (Decree of November 30.) Office of minister of public instruction created. 
1849. Establishment of " Societa d'Istruzione e d'Educaziono " in Lombardy-Venetia, 

which has been of great assistance in the organization of the present public 

school system. 
1859. Promulgation of the "Legge Casati,''or school law, named from the minister of 

public instruction at that date, which forms the basis of the present school 

system, as it provided that each commune should maintain an elementary 

school, that teachers should have certificates of capacity, that there be greater 
_ strictness in university examinations, etc. 
18G7. Religious corporations abolished and their schools classed as private. Other 

modifications of law of 1859 made. 

1877. Instruction made obligatory for children between G and 9 years of age. 

1878. Gymnastics placed on school programmes. 

1881. Legal enactments reorganizing higher council of education and making 
changes in school supervision. 

1885 ami 1886. Legal enactments bearing upon teachers' salaries and teachers' 
licenses. 

1887-1894. Reform movements in university education presented from year to year 
with intention of strengthening the larger university centers and abolishing 
others; commissions axjpointed to study subjects of physical education, text- 
books, reform in elementary school programmes, etc. The "licenza ele- 
mentare" was introduced in 1882, abrogated by Minister Villari in 1891, and 
reintroduced by Minister Baccelli in 1894. The minister of public instruction 
has revived his former scheme for bringing primary and secondary schools 
into relation with each other. Boys who have reached the fifth class of a 
primary school and can j)ass a qualifying examination receive a certificate 
which allows them to enter a secondary school without further difficulty. 
The 'Hieenza liceale" is to be conferred, from 1894 on, upon students of 
"ginnasi" and "licei"who have successfully passed the required exami- 
nations. 



EDUCATION IN ITALY. 58 L 

INDEX TO EDUCATIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT ITALY. 

The reports of the Commissioner of Educatioii, from the year 1870 oa. Annual Eeporta 
have contained information in regard to edncation in Italy, in of <^i"""«?ioner 
the earlier years it was very meager; of late years more complete. 
An index of the matter is here presented. 

Medical schools, course of study in (1 to 6 years) ; industrial schools in , 1870, pp. 390, 
1868, statistics of. 

Main points of school law (4 lines); statistics of schools, 1861-18G8. iS7i,p. 473. 

Detailed statistical presentation for 1871-72 of all grades, with statis- 1872, pp. 40C, 
tics of special schools. 

Tabulated statistics of universities: statistics of elementary and sec- ,^^]?< PP- clxi- 
ondary education in 1872; evangelical school work; expendi- 
tures; illiteracy and penal institutions. 

Statistics for 1874 ; text witJi expenditure. I874,pp.cxxxvii- 

Students in Government and free universities in 1877; primary cdu- 1875, 187G (un- 
cation compulsory; other statistics. iSTV^'p^ dxvL ™' ' 

Tabulated statistics of universities in 1877-78; education again made 1878, pp.clxvii- 
compulsory by law of July 15, 1877; technical schools supported 
by Government communes, religious corporations, and private 
persons; general statistics. 

Italian educators sent abroad to study school systems of other couu- 1879, p. cxcvi. 
tries; education by religious orders, 16,000 priests and members 
of religious 6rders being engaged in teaching in Italian schools. 

Statement in tabulated form of illiteracy in 1861-1871, and of elcmen- ISSO, pp. coxv- 
tary schools and pupils from 1861-1879; of adult schools, female 
boarding schools, etc. This is prefaced by a statement regaixling 
the present constitution of Italy, the fundamental law of iiublic 
instruction, teachers' salaries, and the school bmlget. 

Bill (of November 12, 1881) introduced to enforce school attendance of issi, p. cclviii. 
persons 14 to 16 years of age. 

Statistics presented in tabulated form of schools, both private and 18 8 2-83, pp. 
public, for 1861-1881, with appropriations from 1871-1873, and a cc^^^-«cxxxiv. 
comparison made with other countries of Europe as to amounts 
approjiriated; references are made to school law of 1877, which 
made instruction obllgatorj^, and the number of communes carry- 
ing out the law are indicated. 

Presentation of statistics for 1881-82, in which it is shown that out of 1883-8 4, p. 
1,735,185 pupils registered only 232,929 presented themselves for *^'^^''^"' 
examination, and only 166,185 passed satisfiictorily. Eeasons: 
Poor quality of teachers, poverty of iieoplo. Contents of circular 
of October, 1882, include examination from grade to grade, pupils 
graduating from third grade to attend evening school for a year, 
school inspectors to furnish annual list of children of school age 
to syndic, etc. 

Statistics for elementary schools are presented from official reports 1884-85, pp. 
for 1882-83, the second and higher schools for 1883-84. The length '-*^-'^''"*^*=^'="- 
of the course of study in most institutions is given. The expend- 
itures by State, provinces, and communes for elementary educa- 
tion are also presented. Illiteracy (in 1881) in different parts of 
Italy is also indicated. 

Statistics: School age; population; enrollment in elementary schools; 1885-86, pp. 72G- 
teachcrs; normal schools ; expenditures; university statistics. ' "' 

Statistics of educational periodicals : Number of volumes, date of issue, ]8SG-S7,pp. 978, 
how often published, price. Elementary statistics (as above) : i*^"'-^"^"^""^- 
Name and title of chief officer of education. 



Pr 



582 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

1887-8 8, pp. Educational periodicals tabulated as above; statistics for 1884-85 of 
1010,1014-1018. 1 J. 1 111 

elementary and normal schools. 

1888-89, Tol. I, Course of study in normal schools; popi^^ation and enrollment; eie- 
II, pp." 1-142-I4ii! meutary school statistics; religious instruction; school savings 
banks. First presentation of the school system, its general fea- 
tures ; memorable dates in history ; State and local sujjervision ; 
teachers, their salaries and appointment ; school management and 
organization ; museums and libraries ; statistical table. 
l889-90,_Vol. I, Statistics of enrollment: Ratio to population; per capita of population; 
572; Vol.°li, pp. P'ly or free schools. Diagrams: Ratio to population under school 

?SL ,^^il?',„i?^^~ influence; universities, their foundation, number of students in 
1228, 1672, 1673. ' ' ' 

1890-91. Provision for industrial education. Character of exhibits 

at Milan exhibition for education and hygienic appliances ; infor- 
mation appertaining to progress of education (one-half page); 
table of enrollment, expenditures, j^er capita of population and 
enrollment for 1888-89. 
1890-91, Vol. I, The report for 1890-91 contains an essay on 'education in Italy by 
XXX 3C9-372!^453~ Prof. A. Oldrini, with supplementary matter by Signor Com- 
4.54; Vol. II, p. mendatore Bodio, the director of the statistical bureau in Rome. 
These essays on education in Italy include information concerning 
illiteracy — courses, percentages : Kindergartens, primary education, 
progress of schools since enactment of law for compulsory education 
in 1877. Secondary education (ginnasi and licei, technical schools 
and institutes) : Rural, agricultural, industrial, and normal schools. 
Superior and special instruction : Universities, iirogrammes and pend- 
ing reforms, special schools and aca,demies, academic institutes. Fine 
arts; libraries; the press; budget of public instruction in 1889-90. 
Information supplementary to above : Illiteracy in 1891 by territorial 
subdivision; infant schools; elementary education in 1871-72, in 
1881-82, and in 1891-92 ; normal schools ; secondary schools ; statistics 
for different years; education of women ; agricultural education; in- 
dustrial, professional, and commercial education. Sui)erior and special 
studies; academies of science and literature, fine arts, museums, 
antiquities, national monuments, libraries with statictics to 1890-91. 
Publications according to subject-matter. General provincial and 
municipal school administration. Maintenance and expenditure for 
educational institutions in 1889. Statistical i^resentatiou of youth 
below universities, in elementary, secondary, and higher schools, 
with percentages ; expenditures jier capita of pupils and poi>ulation. 
Legal education, with statistics of law schools. Growth of the kin- 
dergarten. 
An. Rep. 1891- Ko information from Italy. 
An Eep 1892- Expenditures; school attendance; Cavour's efforts; compulsory 

93, pp. 548, 615, education ; instruction in agriculture; education of women; schools 
618,619, 1187-88, . ,-,. • i xi .? .l t i • j. i. 4.- ..• 
2076. for soldiers; music and the fine arts; medical requirements; statistics 

of education. 
An. Kep. 1893- Monograph on public instruction in Italy, by Prof. B. A. Hinsdale. 

94, pp. 325-383. Topical outline: Unification of Italy; educational conditions in 

1861 ; general political facts ; the Casati law and the administra- 
tion of public instruction; description and statistics of different 
grades of schools, from kindergarten to university and special 
schools; the school sujiply; teachers; financial status; public 
schools of Rome during twenty years; warfare against illiteracy; 
summary and conclusion. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



022 132 025 6 



